Diabetes Technology and Therapy in the Pediatric Age Group

Beck RW , Riddlesworth T , Ruedy K , et al. Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes using insulin injections: the DIAMOND randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2017; 317: 371–378.

Laffel LM , Kanapka LG , Beck RW , et al. Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on glycemic control in adolescents and young adults with type 1 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2020; 323: 2388–2396.

DiMeglio LA , Acerini CL , Codner E , et al. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018: Glycemic control targets and glucose monitoring for children, adolescents, and young adults with diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes, 2018; 19 Suppl 27:105–114.

Boucher S , Blackwell M , Galland B , et al. Initial experiences of adolescents and young adults with type 1 diabetes and high-risk glycemic control after starting flash glucose monitoring—a qualitative study. J Diabetes Metab Disord, 2020; 19: 37–46.

Control D , Complications Trial Research Group , Nathan DM , et al. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 1993; 329: 977–986.

Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Effect of intensive diabetes treatment on the development and progression of long-term complications in adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. J Pediatr, 1994; 125: 177–188.

Charalampopoulos D , Hermann JM , Svensson J , et al. Exploring variation in glycemic control across and within eight high-income countries: a cross-sectional analysis of 64,666 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2018; 41: 1180–1187.

Foster NC , Beck RW , Miller KM , et al. State of Type 1 diabetes management and outcomes from the T1D exchange in 2016-2018. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2019; 21: 66–72.

Miller KM , Beck RW , Foster NC , et al. HbA1c Levels in type 1 diabetes from early childhood to older adults: a deeper dive into the influence of technology and socio-economic status on HbA1c in the T1D exchange clinic registry findings. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2020; 22: 645–650.

Prahalad P , Schwandt A , Besançon S , et al. Hemoglobin A1c trajectories in the first 18 months after diabetes diagnosis in the SWEET diabetes registry. Pediatr Diabetes, 2022; 23: 228–236

Prahalad P , Yang J , Scheinker D , et al. Hemoglobin A1c trajectory in pediatric patients with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2019; 21: 456–461.

Addala A , Maahs DM , Scheinker D , et al. Uninterrupted continuous glucose monitoring access is associated with a decrease in HbA1c in youth with type 1 diabetes and public insurance. Pediatr Diabetes, 2020; 21: 1301–1309.

Cardona-Hernandez R , Schwandt A , Alkandari H , et al. Glycemic outcome associated with insulin pump and glucose sensor use in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Data from the international pediatric registry SWEET. Diabetes Care, 2021; 44: 1176–1184.

De Salvo D , Miller KM. , Hermann JM. , et al. T1D exchange and dpv registries. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and glycemic control among youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D): international comparison from the T1D exchange and DPV initiative. Pediatr Diabetes, 2018; 19: 1271–1275.

Ravi SJ , Coakley A , Vigers T , et al. Pediatric Medicaid patients with type 1 diabetes benefit from continuous glucose monitor technology. J Diabetes Sci Technol, 2021; 15: 630–635.

Cameron FJ , de Beaufort C , Aanstoot HJ , et al. Lessons from the Hvidoere International Study Group on childhood diabetes: be dogmatic about outcome and flexible in approach. Pediatr Diabetes, 2013; 14: 473–480.

Van Loocke M , Battelino T , Tittel SR , et al. Lower HbA1c targets are associated with better metabolic control. Eur J Pediatr, 2021; 180: 1513–1520.

Burckhardt MA , Roberts A , Smith GJ , et al. The use of continuous glucose monitoring with remote monitoring improves psychosocial measures in parents of children with type 1 diabetes: a randomized crossover trial. Diabetes Care, 2018; 41: 2641–2643.

Reddy M , Jugnee N , El Laboudi A , et al. A randomized controlled pilot study of continuous glucose monitoring and flash glucose monitoring in people with type 1 diabetes and impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia. Diabet Med, 2018; 35: 483–490.

Haskova A , Radovnicka L , Petruzelkova L , et al. Real-time CGM is superior to flash glucose monitoring for glucose control in type 1 diabetes: the CORRIDA randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care, 2020; 43: 2744–2750.

Funtanilla VD , Candidate P , Caliendo T , et al. Continuous glucose monitoring: a review of available systems. P T, 2019; 44: 550–553.

Everett EM , Copeland TP , Moin T , et al. National trends in pediatric admissions for diabetic ketoacidosis, 2006–2016. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2021; 106: 2343–2354.

van den Boom L , Karges B , Auzanneau M , et al. Temporal trends and contemporary use of insulin pump therapy and glucose monitoring among children, adolescents, and adults with type 1 diabetes between 1995 and 2017. Diabetes Care, 2019; 42: 2050–2056.

Karges B , Schwandt A , Heidtmann B , et al. Association of insulin pump therapy vs insulin injection therapy with severe hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, and glycemic control among children, adolescents, and young adults with type 1 diabetes. JAMA, 2017; 318: 1358–1366.

Gerhardsson P , Schwandt A , Witsch M , et al. The SWEET project 10-year benchmarking in 19 countries worldwide is associated with improved HbA1c and increased use of diabetes technology in youth with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2021; 23: 491–499.

Bergenstal RM , Garg S , Weinzimer SA , et al. Safety of a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system in patients with type 1 diabetes. JAMA, 2016; 316: 1407–1408.

Breton MD , Kanapka LG , Beck RW , et al. A randomized trial of closed-loop control in children with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 2020; 383: 836–845.

Brown SA , Kovatchev BP , Raghinaru D , et al. Six-month randomized, multicenter trial of closed-loop control in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 2019; 381: 1707–1717

Forlenza GP , Pinhas-Hamiel O , Liljenquist DR , et al. Safety evaluation of the MiniMed 670G system in children 7–13 years of age with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2019; 21: 11–19.

Commissariat PV , Roethke LC , Finnegan JL , et al. Youth and parent preferences for an ideal AP system: it is all about reducing burden. Pediatr Diabetes, 2021; 22: 1063–1070.

Siebenhofer A , Jeitler K , Berghold A , et al. Severe hypoglycaemia and glycaemic control in Type 1 diabetes: meta-analysis of multiple daily insulin injections compared with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. Diabet Med, 2009; 26: 311–312; author reply 312–313.

Johnson SR , Cooper MN , Jones TW , et al. Long-term outcome of insulin pump therapy in children with type 1 diabetes assessed in a large population-based case-control study. Diabetologia, 2013; 56: 2392–2400.

Pankowska E , Blazik M , Dziechciarz P , et al. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion vs. multiple daily injections in children with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Pediatr Diabetes, 2009; 10: 52–58.

Mameli C , Scaramuzza AE , Ho J , et al. A 7-year follow-up retrospective, international, multicenter study of insulin pump therapy in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetol, 2014; 51: 205–210.

Szypowska A , Schwandt A , Svensson J , et al. Insulin pump therapy in children with type 1 diabetes: analysis of data from the SWEET registry. Pediatr Diabetes, 2016; 17 Suppl 23: 38–45.

American Diabetes Association. 9. Pharmacologic approaches to glycemic treatment: standards of care in diabetes—2019. Diabetes Care, 2019; 42 Suppl 1: S90–S102.

Chase HP , Saib SZ , MacKenzie T , et al. Post-prandial glucose excursions following four methods of bolus insulin administration in subjects with type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med, 2002; 19: 317–321.

Bell KJ , Toschi E , Steil GM , et al. Optimized mealtime insulin dosing for fat and protein in type 1 diabetes: application of a model-based approach to derive insulin doses for open-loop diabetes management. Diabetes Care, 2016; 39: 1631–1634.

Wolpert HA , Atakov-Castillo A , Smith SA , et al. Dietary fat acutely increases glucose concentrations and insulin requirements in patients with type 1 diabetes: implications for carbohydrate-based bolus dose calculation and intensive diabetes management. Diabetes Care, 2013; 36: 810–816.

Madsbad S. Impact of postprandial glucose control on diabetes-related complications: how is the evidence evolving?. J Diabetes Complications, 2016; 30: 374–385.

Beck RW , Bergenstal RM , Riddlesworth TD , et al. Validation of time in range as an outcome measure for diabetes clinical trials. Diabetes Care, 2019; 42: 400–405.

Zeevi D , Korem T , Zmora N , et al. Personalized nutrition by prediction of glycemic responses. Cell, 2015; 163: 1079–1094.

Landau Z , Rachmiel M , Pinhas-Hamiel O , et al. Parental sleep quality and continuous glucose monitoring system use in children with type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetol, 2014; 51: 499–503.

Bisio A , Brown SA , McFadden R , et al. Sleep and diabetes-specific psycho-behavioral outcomes of a new automated insulin delivery system in young children with type 1 diabetes and their parents. Pediatr Diabetes, 2021; 22: 495–502.

Abitbol L , Palmert MR . When low blood sugars cause high anxiety: fear of hypoglycemia among parents of youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Can J Diabetes, 2021; 45: 403–410.e2

Cobry EC , Hamburger E , Jaser SS . Impact of the hybrid closed-loop system on sleep and quality of life in youth with type 1 diabetes and their parents. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2020; 22: 794–800

Brown SA , Forlenza GP , Bode BW , et al. Multicenter trial of a tubeless, on-body automated insulin delivery system with customizable glycemic targets in pediatric and adult participants with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2021; 44: 1630–1640.

Ekhlaspour L , Schoelwer MJ , Forlenza GP , et al. Safety and performance of the Tandem t:slim X2 with Control-IQ Automated Insulin Delivery System in toddlers and preschoolers. Diabetes Technol Ther, 2021; 23: 384–391.

Sherr JL , Bode BW , Forlenza GP , et al. Safety and glycemic outcomes with a tubeless automated insulin delivery system in very young children with type 1 diabetes: a single-arm multicenter clinical trial. Diabetes Care, 2022; 45: 1907–1910.

Sherr JL , Hermann JM , Campbell F , et al.; T1D Exchange Clinic Network, the DPV Initiative, and the National Pediatric Diabetes Audit and the Royal College of Pediatrics and Child Health Registries. Use of insulin pump therapy in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes and its impact on metabolic control: comparison of results from three large, transatlantic pediatric registries. Diabetologia, 2016; 59: 87–91.

Olsen B , Johannesen J , Fredheim S , et al; Danish Society for Childhood and Adolescent Diabetes . Insulin pump treatment; increasing prevalence, and predictors for better metabolic outcome in Danish children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes, 2015; 16: 256–262.

Petitti DB , Klingensmith GJ , Bell RA , et al. Glycemic control in youth with diabetes: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. J Pediatr, 2009; 155: 668–672.e1-3.

Dabelea D , Stafford JM , Mayer-Davis EJ , et al. Association of type 1 diabetes vs type 2 diabetes diagnosed during childhood and adolescence with complications during teenage years and young adulthood. JAMA, 2017; 317: 825–835.

Hershey T , Perantie DC , Warren SL , et al. Frequency and timing of severe hypoglycemia affects spatial memory in children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2005; 28: 2372–2377.

Abraham MB , Jones TW , Naranjo D , et al. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018: Assessment and management of hypoglycemia in children and adolescents with diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes, 2018; 19 Suppl 27: 178–192.

Kedia N. Treatment of severe diabetic hypoglycemia with glucagon: an underutilized therapeutic approach. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes, 2011; 4: 337–346.

Xeris Pharmaceuticals I. GVOKE (glucagon) injection USPI 2019, [PDF online], accessed on November 15, 2022 . Available at www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/212097s000lbl.pdf.

Company ELa. Baqsimi (glucagon) nasal powder USPI 2019, [PDF online], July 2019. Available at www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/210134s000lbl.pdf.

Hövelmann U , Bysted BV , Mouritzen U , et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics of dasiglucagon, a novel soluble and stable glucagon analog. Diabetes Care, 2018; 41: 531–537.

Pieber TR , Aronson R , Hövelmann U , et al. Dasiglucagon-A next-generation glucagon analog for rapid and effective treatment of severe hypoglycemia: results of phase 3 randomized double-blind clinical trial. Diabetes Care, 2021; 44: 1361–1367.

Nadeau KJ , Anderson BJ , Berg EG , et al. Youth-onset type 2 diabetes consensus report: current status, challenges, and priorities. Diabetes Care, 2016; 39: 1635–1642.

Arslanian S , Bacha F , Grey M , et al. Evaluation and management of youth-onset type 2 diabetes: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care, 2018; 41: 2648–2668.

Herman GA , Stein PP , Thornberry NA , et al. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors for the treatment of type 2 diabetes: focus on sitagliptin. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 2007; 81: 761-767.

Raz I , Hanefeld M , Xu L , et al. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin as monotherapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia, 2006; 49: 2564–2571.

Aschner P , Katzeff H , Guo H , et al. Efficacy and safety of monotherapy of sitagliptin compared with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab, 2010; 12: 252–261.

Williams-Herman D , Johnson J , Teng R , et al. Efficacy and safety of sitagliptin and metformin as initial combination therapy and as monotherapy over 2 years in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab, 2010; 12: 442–451.

Williams-Herman D , Xu L , Teng R , et al. Effect of initial combination therapy with sitagliptin and metformin on beta-cell function in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab, 2012; 14: 67–76.

Mathieu C , Shankar RR , Lorber D , et al. A randomized clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of co-administration of sitagliptin with intensively titrated insulin glargine. Diabetes Ther, 2015; 6: 127–142.

Roussel R , Duran-Garcia S , Zhang Y , et al. Double-blind, randomized clinical trial comparing the efficacy and safety of continuing or discontinuing the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin when initiating insulin glargine therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes: the CompoSIT-I study. Diabetes Obes Metab, 2019; 21: 781–790.

Tamborlane WV , Laffel LM , Weill J , et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-finding study of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor linagliptin in pediatric patients with type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes, 2018; 19: 640–648.

Fraser IP , Neufeld ND , Fox LA , et al. A randomized clinical trial to evaluate the single-dose pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety of sitagliptin in pediatric patients with type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes, 2019; 20: 48–56.

The RISE Consortium. Effects of treatment of impaired glucose tolerance or recently diagnosed type 2 diabetes with metformin alone or in combination with insulin glargine on beta-cell function: comparison of responses in youth and adults. Diabetes, 2019; 68: 1670–1680.

Barrett T , Jalaludin MY , Turan S , et al. Novo Nordisk Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Global Expert Panel. Rapid progression of type 2 diabetes and related complications in children and young people—a literature review. Pediatr Diabetes, 2020; 21: 158–172.

Tamborlane WV , Barrientos-Perez M , Fainberg U , et al. Liraglutide in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med, 2019; 381: 637–646.

Product Information: BYDUREON BCISE (exenatide extended release) Updated 07/2021. https://den8dhaj6zs0e.cloudfront.net/50fd68b9-106b-4550-b5d0-12b045f8b184/df5ddbd6-546b-43dab794-56f711189aba/df5ddbd6-546b-43da-b794-56f711189aba_viewable_rendition__v.pdf. Accessed September 20, 2021 .