Reflective smartphone disengagement (i.e., deliberate actions to self-regulate when and how one should use one's smartphone) has become a necessary skill in our ever-connected lives, contributing to a healthy balance of related benefits and harms. However, disengaging from one's smartphone might compete with impulsive psychosocial motivators such as fear of missing out (FoMO) on others' rewarding experiences or feelings of loneliness. To shed light into these competitive processes, the present paper disentangles the reciprocal, over-time relationships between reflective smartphone disengagement, FoMO, and loneliness using data from a two-wave panel study among emerging adults (16–21 years of age). Measurement-invariant structural equation modeling suggests that FoMO and reflective smartphone disengagement negatively predict each other over time, indicating a possible spiraling process. In addition, reflective smartphone disengagement was also negatively related to feelings of loneliness. Together, these findings underline (a) how young people's impulsive and reflective system compete with each other over control of their smartphone usage, where (b) psychosocial benefits of reflective smartphone disengagement were validated among emerging adults, potentially helping them to strengthen the benefits and limit the harms of permanent interactions with and through technology.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
SmithA, AndersonM. Social Media Use in 2018. Pew Research Center; 2018. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/ [Last accessed: December2, 2022].
2.
WuJ, QiaoL, LiuQ. The expanded me: Impact of smartphone use on adolescents' self-expansion via smartphone. Int J Human Comp Int, 2022:1–10; [Epub ahead of print]; doi: 10.1080/10447318.2022.2096189
3.
DavidME, RobertsJA, ChristensonB. Too much of a good thing: Investigating the association between actual smartphone use and individual well-being. Int J Human Comp Int, 2018; 34(3):265–275; doi: 10.1080/10447318.2017.1349250
4.
StevicA, KobanK, BinderA, et al.You are not alone: Smartphone use, friendship satisfaction, and anxiety during the COVID-19 crisis. Mobile Media Commun, 2022; 10(2):294–315; doi: 10.1177/20501579211051820
5.
SteeleRG, HallJA, ChristoffersonJL. Conceptualizing digital stress in adolescents and young adults: Toward the Development of an empirically based model. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev, 2020; 23(1):15–26; doi: 10.1007/s10567-019-00300-5
6.
Vanden AbeeleMMP. Digital wellbeing as a dynamic construct. Commun Theory, 2021; 31(4):932–955; doi: 10.1093/ct/qtaa024
7.
MatthesJ, KarsayK, HirschM, et al.Reflective smartphone disengagement: Conceptualization, measurement, and validation. Comput Hum Behav, 2022; 128:107078; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.107078
8.
RadtkeT, ApelT, SchenkelK, et al.Digital detox: An effective solution in the smartphone era? A systematic literature review. Mobile Media Commun, 2022; 10(2):190–215; doi: 10.1177/20501579211028647
9.
PrzybylskiAK, MurayamaK, DeHaanCR, et al.Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Comput Hum Behav, 2013; 29(4):1841–1848; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014
10.
BueckerS, MundM, ChwastekS, et al.Is loneliness in emerging adults increasing over time? A preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis and systematic review. Psychol Bull, 2021; 147(8):787–805; doi: 10.1037/bul0000332
11.
StrackF, DeutschR. Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Pers Soc Psychol Rev, 2004; 8(3):220–247; doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1
12.
WegnerDM, AnsfieldM, PilloffD. The putt and the pendulum: Ironic effects of the mental control of action. Psychol Sci, 1998; 9(3):196–199; doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00037
13.
MilyavskayaM, SaffranM, HopeN, et al.Fear of missing out: Prevalence, dynamics, and consequences of experiencing FOMO. Motiv Emot, 2018; 42(5):725–737; doi: 10.1007/s11031-018-9683-5
14.
ElhaiJD, McKayD, YangH, et al.Health anxiety related to problematic smartphone use and gaming disorder severity during COVID -19: Fear of missing out as a mediator. Human Behav Emerg Tech, 2021; 3(1):137–146; doi: 10.1002/hbe2.227
15.
ServidioR. Fear of missing out and self-esteem as mediators of the relationship between maximization and problematic smartphone use. Curr Psychol, 2021; 42:232–242; doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-01341-8
16.
BakerZG, KriegerH, LeRoyAS. Fear of missing out: Relationships with depression, mindfulness, and physical symptoms. Transl Issues Psychol Sci, 2016; 2(3):275–282; doi: 10.1037/tps0000075
17.
RobertsJA, DavidME. The social media party: Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), social media intensity, connection, and well-being. Int J Human Comp Int, 2020; 36(4):386–392; doi: 10.1080/10447318.2019.1646517
18.
VordererP, KrömerN, SchneiderFM. Permanently online—Permanently connected: Explorations into university students' use of social media and mobile smart devices. Comput Hum Behav, 2016; 63:694–703; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.085
19.
OberstU, WegmannE, StodtB, et al.Negative consequences from heavy social networking in adolescents: The mediating role of fear of missing out. Journal of Adolescence, 2017; 55(1):51–60; doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008.
20.
BaltaS, EmirtekinE, KircaburunK, et al.Neuroticism, trait fear of missing out, and phubbing: The mediating role of state fear of missing out and problematic instagram use. Int J Ment Health Addict, 2020; 18(3):628–639; doi: 10.1007/s11469-018-9959-8
21.
BrownL, KussDJ. Fear of missing out, mental wellbeing, and social connectedness: A seven-day social media abstinence trial. IJERPH, 2020; 17(12):4566; doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124566
22.
HawkleyLC, CacioppoJT. Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Ann Behav Med, 2010; 40(2):218–227; doi: 10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
23.
TwengeJM, SpitzbergBH, CampbellWK. Less in-person social interaction with peers among U.S. adolescents in the 21st century and links to loneliness. J Soc Pers Relat, 2019; 36(6):1892–1913; doi: 10.1177/0265407519836170
24.
BondBJ, MillerB. YouTube as my space: The relationships between YouTube, social connectedness, and (collective) self-esteem among LGBTQ individuals. New Media Soc, 2021;146144482110618; doi: 10.1177/14614448211061830
25.
BianM, LeungL. Linking loneliness, shyness, smartphone addiction symptoms, and patterns of smartphone use to social capital. Soc Sci Comput Rev, 2015; 33(1):61–79; doi: 10.1177/0894439314528779
26.
KaraM, BaytemirK, Inceman-KaraF. Duration of daily smartphone usage as an antecedent of nomophobia: Exploring multiple mediation of loneliness and anxiety. Behav Inf Technol, 2021; 40(1):85–98; doi: 10.1080/0144929X.2019.1673485
27.
EllisonNB, VitakJ, GrayR, et al.Cultivating social resources on social network sites: Facebook relationship maintenance behaviors and their role in social capital processes. J Comput-Mediat Comm, 2014; 19(4):855–870; doi: 10.1111/jcc4.12078
28.
LapierreMA, ZhaoP. Smartphones and social support: Longitudinal associations between smartphone use and types of support. Soc Sci Comput Rev, 2022; 40(3):831–843; doi: 10.1177/0894439320988762
29.
LaRoseR, ConnollyR, LeeH, et al.Connection overload? A cross cultural study of the consequences of social media connection. Inf Syst Manage, 2014; 31(1):59–73; doi: 10.1080/10580530.2014.854097
30.
CaoX, SunJ. Exploring the effect of overload on the discontinuous intention of social media users: An S-O-R perspective. Comput Hum Behav, 2018; 81:10–18; doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.035.
31.
FuS, LiH, LiuY, et al.Social media overload, exhaustion, and use discontinuance: Examining the effects of information overload, system feature overload, and social overload. Inf Process Manag, 2020; 57(6):102307; doi: 10.1016/j.ipm.2020.102307
32.
EpleyN, KardasM, ZhaoX, et al.Undersociality: Miscalibrated social cognition can inhibit social connection. Trends Cogn Sci, 2022 May;26(5):406–418. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.02.007
33.
ParkN, LeeH. Social implications of smartphone use: Korean college students' smartphone use and psychological well-being. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw, 2012; 15(9):491–497; doi: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0580
34.
ReerF, TangWY, QuandtT. Psychosocial well-being and social media engagement: The mediating roles of social comparison orientation and fear of missing out. New Media Soc, 2019; 21(7):1486–1505; doi: 10.1177/1461444818823719
35.
UramP, SkalskiS. Still logged in? The link between Facebook addiction, FoMO, self-esteem, life satisfaction and loneliness in social media users. Psychol Rep, 2022; 125(1):218–231; doi: 10.1177/0033294120980970
36.
StevicA, MatthesJ. A vicious circle between children's non-communicative smartphone use and loneliness: Parents cannot do much about it. Telem Inform, 2021; 64:101677; doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2021.101677
37.
WegmannE, OberstU, StodtB, et al.Online-specific fear of missing out and Internet-use expectancies contribute to symptoms of Internet-communication disorder. Addict Behav Rep, 2017; 5:33–42; doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2017.04.001
38.
RossiA, PanzeriA, PietrabissaG, et al.The anxiety-buffer hypothesis in the time of COVID-19: When self-esteem protects from the impact of loneliness and fear on anxiety and depression. Front Psychol, 2020; 11:2177; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02177
39.
HughesME, WaiteLJ, HawkleyLC, et al.A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies. Res Aging, 2004; 26(6):655–672; doi: 10.1177/0164027504268574
40.
RosseelY. lavaan: An R Package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Soft, 2012; 48(2):1–36; doi: 10.18637/jss.v048.i02
41.
AdachiP, WilloughbyT. Interpreting effect sizes when controlling for stability effects in longitudinal autoregressive models: Implications for psychological science. Eur J Dev Psychol, 2015; 12(1):116–128; doi: 10.1080/17405629.2014.963549
42.
VandenbergRJ, LanceCE. A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for Organizational Research. Organ Res Methods, 2000; 3(1):4–70; doi: 10.1177/109442810031002
43.
HayesAF. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. Guilford Publications: New York, NY;. 2017.
44.
KarsayK, MatthesJ, SchmuckD, et al.Messaging, posting, and browsing: A mobile experience sampling study investigating youth's social media use, affective well-being, and loneliness. Soc Sci Comput Rev, 2022; 41(4):1493–1513; doi: 10.1177/08944393211058308
45.
KarsayK, SchmuckD, MatthesJ, et al.Longitudinal effects of excessive smartphone use on stress and loneliness: The moderating role of self-disclosure. Cyberpsychology Behav Soc Netw, 2019; 22(11):706–713; doi: 10.1089/cyber.2019.0255
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
