A central goal of The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine is the development of clinical protocols for managing common medical problems that may impact breastfeeding success. These protocols serve only as guidelines for the care of breastfeeding mothers and infants and do not delineate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as standards of medical care. Variations in treatment may be appropriate according to the needs of an individual patient.
SmithHA, BeckerGE. Early additional food and fluids for healthy breastfed full-term infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD006462. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006462.pub4.
3.
VictoraCG, BahlR, BarrosAJD, et al.Breastfeeding in the 21st century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet, 2016; 387:475–490.
4.
BiroMA, SutherlandGA, YellandJS, et al.In-hospital formula supplementation of breastfed babies: A population-based survey. Birth, 2011; 38:302–310.
5.
BobanM, Zakarija-GrkovicI. In-hospital formula supplementation of healthy newborns: Practices, reasons and their medical justification. Breastfeed Med, 2016; 11:448–454.
6.
World Health Organization. The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review. Geneva: WHO, 2002.
7.
American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 2012; 129:827–841.
8.
National Health and Medical Research Council.. Infant Feeding Guidelines Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council, 2012.
9.
DabritzHA, HintonBG, BabbJ. Maternal hospital experiences associated with breastfeeding at 6 months in a northern California county. J Hum Lact, 2010; 26:274–285.
10.
PerrineCG, ScanlonKS, LiR, et al.Baby-Friendly hospital practices and meeting exclusive breastfeeding intention. Pediatrics, 2012; 130:54–60.
11.
NaveedM, ManjunathCS, SreenivasV. An autopsy study of relationship between perinatal stomach capacity and birth weight. Indian J Gastroenterol, 1992; 11:156–158.
12.
ZangenS, Di LorenzoC, ZangenT, et al.Rapid maturation of gastric relaxation in newborn infants. Pediatr Res, 2001; 50:629–632.
13.
ScammonR, DoyleL. Observations on the capacity of the stomach in the first ten days of postnatal life. Am J Dis Child, 1920; 20:516–538.
14.
WightNE. Hypoglycemia in breastfed neonates. Breastfeed Med, 2006; 1:253–262.
15.
WightN, MarinelliKA. ABM clinical protocol #1: Guidelines for blood glucose monitoring and treatment of hypoglycemia in term and late-preterm neonates, Revised 2014. Breastfeed Med, 2014; 9:173–179.
16.
CohenRJ, BrownKH, RiveraLL, et al.Exclusively breastfed, low birthweight term infants do not need supplemental water. Acta Paediatr, 2000; 89:550–552.
17.
MarchiniG, StockS. Thirst and vasopressin secretion counteract dehydration in newborn infants. J Pediatr, 1997; 130:736–739.
18.
SachdevHP, KrishnaJ, PuriRK. Do exclusively breast fed infants need fluid supplementation?. Indian Pediatr, 1992; 29:535–540.
19.
GrossmanX, ChaudhuriJH, Feldman-WinterL, et al.Neonatal weight loss at a US Baby-Friendly Hospital. J Acad Nutr Diet, 2012; 112:410–413.
20.
FlahermanVJ, SchaeferEW, KuzniewiczMW, et al.Early weight loss nomograms for exclusively breastfed newborns. Pediatrics, 2015; 135:e16–e23.
21.
MacdonaldPD, RossSR, GrantL, et al.Neonatal weight loss in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child, 2003; 88:F472–F476.
22.
Noel-WeissJ, WoodendA, PetersonW, et al.An observational study of associations among maternal fluids during parturition, neonatal output, and breastfed newborn weight loss. Int Breastfeed J, 2011; 6:9.
23.
ChantryC, Nommsen-RiversL, PeersonJ, et al.Excess weight loss in first-born breastfed newborns relates to maternal intrapartum fluid balance. Pediatrics, 2011; 127:171–179.
24.
GattiL. Maternal perceptions of insufficient milk supply in breastfeeding. J Nurs Scholarsh, 2008; 40:355–363.
25.
RobertE, CoppietersY, SwennenB, et al.The reasons for early weaning, perceived insufficient breast milk, and maternal dissatisfaction: Comparative studies in two Belgian regions. Int Sch Res Notices, 2014; 2014:678564.
26.
BlythR, CreedyDK, DennisC-L, et al.Effect of maternal confidence on breastfeeding duration: An application of breastfeeding self-efficacy theory. Birth, 2002; 29:278–284.
27.
ReifM, Essock-VitaleS. Hospital influences on early infant-feeding practices. Pediatrics, 1985; 76:872–879.
28.
CrowleyWR. Neuroendocrine regulation of lactation and milk production. Evaluation, 2015; 5:255–291.
29.
ClohertyM, AlexanderJ, HollowayI. Supplementing breast-fed babies in the UK to protect their mothers from tiredness or distress. Midwifery, 2004; 20:194–204.
30.
KurinijN, ShionoPH. Early formula supplementation of breast-feeding. Pediatrics, 1991; 88:745–750.
American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics, 2004; 114:297–316.
33.
EmdeRN, SwedbergJ, SuzukiB. Human wakefulness and biological rhythms after birth. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1975; 32:780–783.
34.
FlahermanVJ, GayB, ScottC, et al.Randomised trial comparing hand expression with breast pumping for mothers of term newborns feeding poorly. Arch Dis Child, 2012; 97:F18–F23.
35.
BerensP, EglashA, MalloyM, et al.ABM Clinical Protocol #26: Persistent pain with breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med, 2016; 11:46–53.
36.
WaldenströmU, SwensonA. Rooming-in at night in the postpartum ward. Midwifery, 1991; 7:82–89.
37.
JaafarSH, HoJJ, LeeKS. Rooming-in for new mother and infant versus separate care for increasing the duration of breastfeeding. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD006641. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006641.pub3.
38.
Feldman-WinterL, GoldsmithJP. Safe sleep and skin-to-skin care in the neonatal period for healthy term newborns. Pediatrics, 2016; 138:e20161889.
39.
World Health Organization. Evidence for the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding. Geneva: WHO, 1998.
40.
SuL-L, ChongY-S, ChanY-H, et al.Antenatal education and postnatal support strategies for improving rates of exclusive breast feeding: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 2007; 335:596.
41.
LumbiganonP, MartisR, LaopaiboonM, et al.Antenatal breastfeeding education for increasing breastfeeding duration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD006425. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006425.pub4.
42.
BalogunOO, O'SullivanEJ, McFaddenA, et al.Interventions for promoting the initiation of breastfeeding. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016; 11:CD001688.
43.
Guide to Clinical Preventive Services,, 2nd ed., Report of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. US Preventive Services Task Force Washington (DC). US Department of Health and Human Services. 1996. Available at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK15430 (accessed January4, 2016).
44.
MooreER, BergmanN, AndersonGC, et al.Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016; 11:CD003519.
45.
ParkerLA, SullivanS, KruegerC, et al.Association of timing of initiation of breastmilk expression on milk volume and timing of lactogenesis stage II among mothers of very low-birth-weight infants. Breastfeed Med, 2015; 10:84–91.
46.
ParryJE, IpDKM, ChauPYK, et al.Predictors and consequences of in-hospital formula supplementation for healthy breastfeeding newborns. J Hum Lact, 2013; 29:527–536.
47.
PangWW, HartmannPE. Initiation of human lactation: Secretory differentiation and secretory activation. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia, 2007; 12:211–221.
48.
SpanglerA, FloryJ, WambachK, et al.Clinical Guidelines for the Establishment of Exclusive Breastfeeding: International Lactation Consultant Association; 2014.
49.
BeckerGE, SmithHA, CooneyF. Methods of milk expression for lactating women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD006170. [Epub ahead of print]; DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006170.pub5.
50.
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee. ABM Clinical Protocol #7: Model breastfeeding policy (Revision 2010). Breastfeed Med, 2010; 5:173–177.
51.
HawkeBA, DennisonBA, HisgenS. Improving hospital breastfeeding policies in New York State: Development of the model hospital breastfeeding policy. Breastfeed Med, 2013; 8:3–7.
52.
HowardCR, HowardFM, LanphearB, et al.Randomized clinical trial of pacifier use and bottle-feeding or cupfeeding and their effect on breastfeeding. Pediatrics, 2003; 111:511–518.
53.
HillPD, AldagJC, ChattertonRT. Initiation and frequency of pumping and milk production in mothers of non-nursing preterm infants. J Hum Lact, 2001; 17:9–13.
World Health Organization. Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding. Geneva: WHO, 2003.
56.
MortonJ, HallJY, WongRJ, et al.Combining hand techniques with electric pumping increases milk production in mothers of preterm infants. J Perinatol, 2009; 29:757–764.
GourleyGR, LiZ, KreamerBL, et al.A controlled, randomized, double-blind trial of prophylaxis against jaundice among breastfed newborns. Pediatrics, 2005; 116:385–391.
59.
BoyleRJ, IerodiakonouD, KhanT, et al.Hydrolysed formula and risk of allergic or autoimmune disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 2016; 352:i974.
60.
de CarvalhoM, HallM, HarveyD. Effects of water supplementation on physiological jaundice in breast-fed babies. Arch Dis Child, 1981; 56:568–569.
61.
NicollA, GinsburgR, TrippJH. Supplementary feeding and jaundice in newborns. Acta Paediatr Scand, 1982; 71:759–761.
62.
SaintL, SmithM, HartmannPE. The yield and nutrient content of colostrum and milk of women from giving birth to 1 month post-partum. Br J Nutr, 1984; 52:87–95.
63.
CaseyCE, NeifertMR, SeacatJM, et al.Nutrient intake by breast-fed infants during the first five days after birth. Am J Dis Child, 1986; 140:933–936.
64.
EvansK, EvansR, RoyalR, et al.Effect of casearean section on breast milk transfer to the normal term newborn over the first week of life. Arch Dis Child, 2003; 88:F380–F382.
65.
DollbergS, LahavS, MimouniFB. A comparison of intakes of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first two days of life. J Am Coll Nutr, 2001; 20:209–211.
66.
Davila-GrijalvaH, TroyaAH, KringE, et al.How much do formula-fed infants take in the first 2 days?. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 2017; 56:46–48.
67.
WightNE. Management of common breastfeeding issues. Pediatr Clin North Am, 2001; 48:321–344.
68.
ClohertyM, AlexanderJ, HollowayI, et al.The cup-versus-bottle debate: A theme from an ethnographic study of the supplementation of breastfed infants in hospital in the United kingdom. J Hum Lact, 2005; 21:151–162.
69.
FlintA, NewK, DaviesMW. Cup feeding versus other forms of supplemental enteral feeding for newborn infants unable to fully breastfeed. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD005092. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005092.pub3.
70.
HowardCR, de BlieckEA, ten HoopenCB, et al.Physiologic stability of newborns during cup- and bottle-feeding. Pediatrics, 1999; 104(Pt 2):1204–1207.
71.
MalhotraN, VishwambaranL, SundaramKR, et al.A controlled trial of alternative methods of oral feeding in neonates. Early Hum Dev, 1999; 54:29–38.
72.
MarinelliKA, BurkeGS, DoddVL. A comparison of the safety of cupfeedings and bottlefeedings in premature infants whose mothers intend to breastfeed. J Perinatol, 2001; 21:350–355.
73.
KassingD. Bottle-feeding as a tool to reinforce breastfeeding. J Hum Lact, 2002; 18:56–60.
74.
NeifertM, LawrenceR, SeacatJ. Nipple confusion: Towards a formal definition. J Pediatr, 1995; 126:S125–S129.
75.
BoiesE, VaucherY. ABM Clinical Protocol #10: Breastfeeding the late preterm (34–36 6/7 weeks of gestation) and early term infants (37–38 6/7 weeks of gestation), second revision 2016. Breastfeed Med, 2016; 11:494–500.
UNICEF/WHO.. Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative, revised, updated and expanded for integrated care, Section 4, Hospital Self-Appraisal and Monitoring. 2006. Available at www.who.int/nutrition/topics/BFHI_Revised_Section_4.pdf (accessed November21, 2016).
78.
WestonP, HarrisD, BattinM, et al.Oral dextrose gel for the treatment of hypoglycaemia in newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016;CD011027. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011027.pub2.
79.
BoskabadiH, MaamouriG, EbrahimiM, et al.Neonatal hypernatremia and dehydration in infants receiving inadequate breastfeeding. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 2010; 19:301–307.
80.
NeifertMR. Prevention of breastfeeding tragedies. Pediatr Clin North Am, 2001; 48:273–297.
81.
Nommsen-RiversLA, HeinigMJ, CohenRJ, et al.Newborn wet and soiled diaper counts and timing of onset of lactation as indicators of breastfeeding inadequacy. J Hum Lact, 2008; 24:27–33.
82.
ThuilerD. Challenging expected patterns of weight loss in full-term breastfeeding neonates born by Cesarean. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs, 2017; 46:18–28.
83.
ShragoLC, ReifsniderE, InselK. The Neonatal Bowel Output Study: Indicators of adequate breast milk intake in neonates. Pediatr Nurs, 2006; 32:195–201.
84.
NeifertMR, DeMarzoS, SeacatJM, et al.The influence of breast surgery, breast appearance, and pregnancy-induced breast changes on lactation sufficiency as measured by infant weight gain. Birth, 1990; 17:31–38.
85.
HugginsK, PetokE, MirelesO. Markers of lactation insufficiency: A study of 34 mothers. In: Current Issues in Clinical Lactation, AuerbachK, ed. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett, 2000, pp. 27–35.
86.
BullenCL, TearlePV, StewartMG. The effect of “humanised” milks and supplemented breast feeding on the faecal flora of infants. J Med Microbiol, 1977; 10:403–413.
87.
GoldsmithF, O'SullivanA, SmilowitzJT, et al.Lactation and intestinal microbiota: How early diet shapes the infant gut. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia, 2015; 20:149–158.
88.
LiaoS-L, LaiS-H, YehK-W, et al.Exclusive breastfeeding is associated with reduced cow's milk sensitization in early childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 2014; 25:456–461.
89.
SaarinenK, Juntunen-BackmanK, JärvenpääA, et al.Supplementary feeding in maternity hospitals and the risk of cow's milk allergy: A prospective study of 6209 infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 1999; 104:457–461.
90.
De CarvalhoM, HallM, HarveyD. Effects of water supplementation on physiological jaundice in breastfed babies. Arch Dis Child, 1981; 56:568–569.
91.
GloverJ, SandilandsM. Supplementation of breastfeeding infants and weight loss in hospital. J Hum Lact, 1990; 6:163–166.
92.
MartensP, PhillipsS, CheangM, et al.How baby-friendly are Manitoba hospitals? The Provincial Infant Feeding Study. Breastfeeding Promotion Steering Committee of Manitoba. Can J Public Health, 2009; 91:51–57.
93.
De CarvalhoM, KlausMH, MerkatzRB. Frequency of breast-feeding and serum bilirubin concentration. Am J Dis Child, 1982; 136:737–738.
94.
YamauchiY, YamanouchiI. Breast-feeding frequency during the first 24 hours after birth in full-term neonates. Pediatrics, 1990; 86:171–175.
95.
KumarA, PantP, BasuS, et al.Oxidative stress in neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. J Trop Pediatr, 2007; 53:69–71.
96.
Van Den DriesscheM, PeetersK, MarienP, et al.Gastric emptying in formula-fed and breast-fed infants measured with the 13C-octanoic acid breath test. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 1999; 29:46–51.
97.
MathenyRJ, BirchLL, PiccianoMF. Control of intake by human-milk-fed infants: Relationships between feeding size and interval. Dev Psychobiol, 1990; 23:511–518.
98.
Pérez-EscamillaR, Segura-MillánS, CanahuatiJ, et al.Prelacteal feeds are negatively associated with breast-feeding outcomes in Honduras. J Nutr, 1996; 126:2765–2773.
99.
HaleT, RoweH. Medications and Mother's Milk, 17th ed. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2017.
100.
PeaseAS, FlemingPJ, HauckFR, et al.Swaddling and the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 2016; 137:e20153275.
101.
BystrovaK, MatthiesenA, WidstromA, et al.The effect of Russian Maternity Home routines on breastfeeding and neonatal weight loss with special reference to swaddling. Early Hum Dev, 2007; 83:29–39.
102.
GagnonA, LeducG, WaghornK, et al.In-hospital formula supplementation of healthy breastfeeding newborns. J Hum Lact, 2005; 21:397–405.
103.
SlavenS, HarveyD. Unlimited suckling time improves breastfeeding. Lancet, 1981; 1:392–393.
104.
GeddesDT, LangtonDB, GollowI, et al.Frenulotomy for breastfeeding infants with ankyloglossia: Effect on milk removal and sucking mechanism as imaged by ultrasound. Pediatrics, 2008; 122:e188–e194.