Reactive Oxygen Species in the Regulation of Synaptic Plasticity and Memory

Abstract

The brain is a metabolically active organ exhibiting high oxygen consumption and robust production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The large amounts of ROS are kept in check by an elaborate network of antioxidants, which sometimes fail and lead to neuronal oxidative stress. Thus, ROS are typically categorized as neurotoxic molecules and typically exert their detrimental effects via oxidation of essential macromolecules such as enzymes and cytoskeletal proteins. Most importantly, excessive ROS are associated with decreased performance in cognitive function. However, at physiological concentrations, ROS are involved in functional changes necessary for synaptic plasticity and hence, for normal cognitive function. The fine line of role reversal of ROS from good molecules to bad molecules is far from being fully understood. This review focuses on identifying the multiple sources of ROS in the mammalian nervous system and on presenting evidence for the critical and essential role of ROS in synaptic plasticity and memory. The review also shows that the inability to restrain either age- or pathology-related increases in ROS levels leads to opposite, detrimental effects that are involved in impairments in synaptic plasticity and memory function. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 14, 2013–2054.

Introduction

Basic Components of Learning and Memory

Sources of Reactive Oxygen Species

• The mitochondrial respiratory chain

• Monoamine oxidase

• NOS: NO (and related gases)

• NADPH oxidase

Physiological Roles of ROS

• Synaptic signaling and LTP

• Learning and memory

Pathological Release and Effects of ROS

• ROS in physiological aging

• ROS in AD

• ROS during hypoxia/ischemia and traumatic brain injury

• ROS in multiple disease states

Antioxidant Defenses Against Pathological ROS

• Antioxidant enzymes

• Antioxidant molecules (nonenzymatic)

• Minerals

Conclusions