Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play important roles in regulation of cell survival. In general, moderate levels of ROS/RNS may function as signals to promote cell proliferation and survival, whereas severe increase of ROS/RNS can induce cell death. Under physiologic conditions, the balance between generation and elimination of ROS/RNS maintains the proper function of redox-sensitive signaling proteins. Normally, the redox homeostasis ensures that the cells respond properly to endogenous and exogenous stimuli. However, when the redox homeostasis is disturbed, oxidative stress may lead to aberrant cell death and contribute to disease development. This review focuses on the roles of key transcription factors, signal-transduction pathways, and cell-death regulators in affecting cell survival, and how the redox systems regulate the functions of these molecules. The current understanding of how disturbance in redox homeostasis may affect cell death and contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer and degenerative disorders is reviewed. We also discuss how the basic knowledge on redox regulation of cell survival can be used to develop strategies for the treatment or prevention of those diseases.Antioxid. Redox Signal. 10, 1343–1374.
AlexandreJ, NiccoC, ChereauC, LaurentA, WeillB, GoldwasserF, BatteuxF. Improvement of the therapeutic index of anticancer drugs by the superoxide dismutase mimic mangafodipir. J Natl Cancer Inst, 98:236–244. 2006.
3.
AngelP, KarinM. The role of Jun, Fos and the AP-1 complex in cell-proliferation and transformation. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1072:129–157. 1991.
4.
O'BrianCA, ChuF. Review: post-translational disulfide modifications in cell signaling: role of inter-protein, intra-protein, S-glutathionyl, and S-cysteaminyl disulfide modifications in signal transmission. Free Radic Res, 39:471–480. 2005.
5.
ArakawaM, ItoY. N-acetylcysteine and neurodegenerative diseases: basic and clinical pharmacology. Cerebellum, 6:308–314. 2007.
6.
ArmstrongJS. Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization: the sine qua non for cell death. Bioessays, 28:253–260. 2006.
7.
AttardiLD, DonehowerLA. Probing p53 biological functions through the use of genetically engineered mouse models. Mutat Res, 576:4–21. 2005.
8.
AwasthiYC, SharmaR, ChengJZ, YangY, SharmaA, SinghalSS, AwasthiS. Role of 4-hydroxynonenal in stress-mediated apoptosis signaling. Mol Aspects Med, 24:219–230. 2003.
9.
AylonY, OrenM. Living with p53, dying of p53. Cell, 130:597–600. 2007.
10.
BannisterAJ, MiskaEA. Regulation of gene expression by transcription factor acetylation. Cell Mol Life Sci (CMLS), 57:1184–1192. 2000.
11.
BasuA, DuBoisG, HaldarS. Posttranslational modifications of Bcl2 family members: a potential therapeutic target for human malignancy. Frontiers Biosci, 11:1508–1521. 2006.
12.
BauerMK, VogtM, LosM, SiegelJ, WesselborgS, Schulze-OsthoffK. Role of reactive oxygen intermediates in activation-induced CD95 (APO-1/Fas) ligand expression. J Biol Chem, 273:8048–8055. 1998.
13.
BayirH, FadeelB, PalladinoMJ, WitaspE, KurnikovIV, TyurinaYY, TyurinVA, AmoscatoAA, JiangJ, KochanekPM, DeKoskyST, GreenbergerJS, ShvedovaAA, KaganVE. Apoptotic interactions of cytochrome c: redox flirting with anionic phospholipids within and outside of mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1757:648–659. 2006.
14.
BeaF, HudsonFN, ChaitA, KavanaghTJ, RosenfeldME. Induction of glutathione synthesis in macrophages by oxidized low-density lipoproteins is mediated by consensus antioxidant response elements. Circ Res, 92:386–393. 2003.
BehrendL, HendersonG, ZwackaRM. Reactive oxygen species in oncogenic transformation. Biochem Soc Trans, 31:1441–1444. 2003.
17.
BelAibaRS, DjordjevicT, BonelloS, FlugelD, HessJ, KietzmannT, GorlachA. Redox-sensitive regulation of the HIF pathway under non-hypoxic conditions in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. Biol Chem, 385:249–257. 2004.
18.
BellEL, ChandelNS. Mitochondrial oxygen sensing: regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor by mitochondrial generated reactive oxygen species. Essays Biochem, 43:17–27. 2007.
19.
BenassiB, FanciulliM, FiorentinoF, PorrelloA, ChiorinoG, LodaM, ZupiG, BiroccioA. c-Myc phosphorylation is required for cellular response to oxidative stress. Mol Cell, 21:509–519. 2006.
20.
BensaadK, TsurutaA, SelakMA, VidalMN, NakanoK, BartronsR, GottliebE, VousdenKH. TIGAR, a p53-inducible regulator of glycolysis and apoptosis. Cell, 126:107–120. 2006.
21.
BensaadK, VousdenKH. p53: New roles in metabolism. Trends Cell Biol, 17:286–291. 2007.
22.
BhaskarPT, HayN. The two TORCs and Akt. Dev Cell, 12:487–502. 2007.
23.
BigelowDJ, SquierTC. Redox modulation of cellular signaling and metabolism through reversible oxidation of methionine sensors in calcium regulatory proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1703:121–134. 2005.
24.
BiroccioA, BenassiB, AmodeiS, GabelliniC, Del BufaloD, ZupiG. c-Myc down-regulation increases susceptibility to cisplatin through reactive oxygen species-mediated apoptosis in M14 human melanoma cells. Mol Pharmacol, 60:174–182. 2001.
25.
BorselloT, ForloniG. JNK signalling: a possible target to prevent neurodegeneration. Curr Pharm Des, 13:1875–1886. 2007.
26.
Bossy-WetzelE, BakiriL, YanivM. Induction of apoptosis by the transcription factor c-Jun. EMBO J, 16:1695–1709. 1997.
27.
BourdonE, BlacheD. The importance of proteins in defense against oxidation. Antioxid Redox Signal, 3:293–311. 2001.
28.
BragadoP, ArmesillaA, SilvaA, PorrasA. Apoptosis by cisplatin requires p53 mediated p38alpha MAPK activation through ROS generation. Apoptosis, 12:1733–1742. 2007.
29.
Brahimi-HornMC, PouyssegurJ. Oxygen, a source of life and stress. FEBS Lett, 581:3582–91. 2007.
30.
Brahimi-HornMC, PouyssegurJ. Hypoxia in cancer cell metabolism and pH regulation. Essays Biochem, 43:165–178. 2007.
31.
BreenAP, MurphyJA. Reactions of oxyl radicals with DNA. Free Radic Biol Med, 18:1033–1077. 1995
32.
BreitschopfK, HaendelerJ, MalchowP, ZeiherAM, DimmelerS. Posttranslational modification of Bcl-2 facilitates its proteasome-dependent degradation: molecular characterization of the involved signaling pathway. Mol Cell Biol, 20:1886–1896. 2000.
BruneB, ZhouJ. The role of nitric oxide (NO) in stability regulation of hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha)Curr Med Chem, 10:845–855. 2003.
35.
BubiciC, PapaS, DeanK, FranzosoG. Mutual cross-talk between reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor-kappa B: molecular basis and biological significance. Oncogene, 25:6731–6748. 2006.
36.
BucciB, D'AgnanoI, AmendolaD, CittiA, RazaGH, MiceliR, De PaulaU, MarcheseR, AlbiniS, FelsaniA, BrunettiE, VecchioneA. Myc down-regulation sensitizes melanoma cells to radiotherapy by inhibiting MLH1 and MSH2 mismatch repair proteins. Clin Cancer Res, 11:2756–2767. 2005.
37.
BusuttilRA, GarciaAM, CabreraC, RodriguezA, SuhY, KimWH, HuangTT, VijgJ. Organ-specific increase in mutation accumulation and apoptosis rate in CuZn-superoxide dismutase-deficient mice. Cancer Res, 65:11271–11275. 2005.
38.
CahuanaGM, TejedoJR, JimenezJ, RamirezR, SobrinoF, BedoyaFJ. Nitric oxide-induced carbonylation of Bcl-2, GAPDH and ANT precedes apoptotic events in insulin-secreting RINm5F cells. Exp Cell Res, 293:22–30. 2004.
39.
CaiJ, WuM, NelsonKC, SternbergPJr, JonesDP. Oxidant-induced apoptosis in cultured human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 40:959–966. 1999.
40.
CallapinaM, ZhouJ, SchmidT, KohlR, BruneB. NO restores HIF-1alpha hydroxylation during hypoxia: role of reactive oxygen species. Free Radic Biol Med, 39:925–936. 2005.
41.
CappelliniA, TazzariPL, MantovaniI, BilliAM, TassiC, RicciF, ConteR, MartelliAM. Antiapoptotic role of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase in Jurkat T cells and normal human T lymphocytes treated with 8-methoxypsoralen and ultraviolet-A radiation. Apoptosis, 10:141–152. 2005.
42.
CatzSD, JohnsonJL. Transcriptional regulation of bcl-2 by nuclear factor kappa B and its significance in prostate cancer. Oncogene, 20:7342–7351. 2001.
43.
ChanK, HanX-D, KanYW. An important function of Nrf2 in combating oxidative stress: detoxification of acetaminophen. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 98:4611–4616. 2001.
ChenK, HuZ, WangLE, SturgisEM, El-NaggarAK, ZhangW, WeiQ. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms at the TP53-binding or responsive promoter regions of BAX and BCL2 genes and risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Carcinogenesis, 28:2008–2012. 2007.
46.
ChenW, MartindaleJL, HolbrookNJ, LiuY. Tumor promoter arsenite activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase through a signaling pathway mediated by epidermal growth factor receptor and Shc. Mol Cell Biol, 18:5178–5188. 1998.
47.
ChenZ, TrotmanLC, ShafferD, LinHK, DotanZA, NikiM, KoutcherJA, ScherHI, LudwigT, GeraldW, Cordon-CardoC, PandolfiPP. Crucial role of p53-dependent cellular senescence in suppression of Pten-deficient tumorigenesis. Nature, 436:725–730. 2005.
48.
ChiarugiP. PTPs versus PTKs: the redox side of the coin. Free Radic Res, 39:353–364. 2005.
49.
ChineryR, BrockmanJA, PeelerMO, ShyrY, BeauchampRD, CoffeyRJ. Antioxidants enhance the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents in colorectal cancer: a p53-independent induction of p21WAF1/CIP1 via C/EBPbeta. Nat Med, 3:1233–1241. 1997.
50.
ChoSH, LeeCH, AhnY, KimH, KimH, AhnCY, YangKS, LeeSR. Redox regulation of PTEN and protein tyrosine phosphatases in H(2)O(2) mediated cell signaling. FEBS Lett, 560:7–13. 2004.
51.
CobbsCS, SamantaM, HarkinsLE, GillespieGY, MerrickBA, MacMillan-CrowLA. Evidence for peroxynitrite-mediated modifications to p53 in human gliomas: possible functional consequences. Arch Biochem Biophys, 394:167–172. 2001.
52.
CobbsCS, WhisenhuntTR, WesemannDR, HarkinsLE, Van MeirEG, SamantaM. Inactivation of wild-type p53 protein function by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in malignant glioma cells. Cancer Res, 63:8670–8673. 2003.
53.
ColottaF, PolentaruttiN, SironiM, MantovaniA. Expression and involvement of c-fos and c-jun protooncogenes in programmed cell death induced by growth factor deprivation in lymphoid cell lines. J Biol Chem, 267:18278–18283. 1992.
54.
CrossJV, TempletonDJ. Oxidative stress inhibits MEKK1 by site-specific glutathionylation in the ATP-binding domain. Biochem J, 381:675–683. 2004.
55.
CrossJV, TempletonDJ. Regulation of signal transduction through protein cysteine oxidation. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:1819–1827. 2006.
56.
CullinanSB, ZhangD, HanninkM, ArvisaisE, KaufmanRJ, DiehlJA. Nrf2 is a direct PERK substrate and effector of PERK-dependent cell survival. Mol Cell Biol, 23:7198–7209. 2003.
57.
DaiY, RahmaniM, DentP, GrantS. Blockade of histone deacetylase inhibitor-induced RelA/p65 acetylation and NF-kappaB activation potentiates apoptosis in leukemia cells through a process mediated by oxidative damage, XIAP downregulation, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 activation. Mol Cell Biol, 25:5429–5444. 2005.
58.
DaleyGQ, BaltimoreD. Transformation of an interleukin 3-dependent hematopoietic cell line by the chronic myelogenous leukemia-specific P210bcr/abl protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 85:9312–9316. 1988.
59.
Dalle-DonneI, AldiniG, CariniM, ColomboR, RossiR, MilzaniA. Protein carbonylation, cellular dysfunction, and disease progression. J Cell Mol Med, 10:389–406. 2006.
60.
DavidSS, O'SheaVL, KunduS. Base-excision repair of oxidative DNA damage. Nature, 447:941–950. 2007.
61.
De SmaeleE, ZazzeroniF, PapaS, NguyenDU, JinR, JonesJ, CongR, FranzosoG. Induction of gadd45beta by NF-kappaB downregulates pro-apoptotic JNK signalling. Nature, 414:308–313. 2001.
62.
DeanRT, FuS, StockerR, DaviesMJ. Biochemistry and pathology of radical-mediated protein oxidation. Biochem J, 324:1–18. 1997.
63.
DelphinC, CahenP, LawrenceJJ, BaudierJ. Characterization of baculovirus recombinant wild-type p53: dimerization of p53 is required for high-affinity DNA binding and cysteine oxidation inhibits p53 DNA binding. Eur J Biochem, 223:683–692. 1994.
DengX, XiaoL, LangW, GaoF, RuvoloP, MayWSJr. Novel role for JNK as a stress-activated Bcl2 kinase. J Biol Chem, 276:23681–23688. 2001.
66.
DhakshinamoorthyS, PorterAG. Nitric oxide-induced transcriptional up-regulation of protective genes by Nrf2 via the antioxidant response element counteracts apoptosis of neuroblastoma cells. J Biol Chem, 279:20096–20107. 2004.
67.
DickeyDT, WuYJ, MuldoonLL, NeuweltEA. Protection against cisplatin-induced toxicities by N-acetylcysteine and sodium thiosulfate as assessed at the molecular, cellular, and in vivo levels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 314:1052–1058. 2005.
68.
DillonRL, WhiteDE, MullerWJ. The phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase signaling network: implications for human breast cancer. Oncogene, 26:1338–1345. 2007.
69.
DingB, ChiSG, KimSH, KangS, ChoJH, KimDS, ChoNH. Role of p53 in antioxidant defense of HPV-positive cervical carcinoma cells following H2O2 exposure. J Cell Sci, 120:2284–2294. 2007.
70.
Dinkova-KostovaAT, HoltzclawWD, ColeRN, ItohK, WakabayashiN, KatohY, YamamotoM, TalalayP. Direct evidence that sulfhydryl groups of Keap1 are the sensors regulating induction of phase 2 enzymes that protect against carcinogens and oxidants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 99:11908–11913. 2002.
71.
DongC, YangDD, WyskM, WhitmarshAJ, DavisRJ, FlavellRA. Defective T cell differentiation in the absence of Jnk1. Science, 282:2092–2095. 1998.
72.
Draczynska-LusiakB, DoungA, SunAY. Oxidized lipoproteins may play a role in neuronal cell death in Alzheimer disease. Mol Chem Neuropathol, 33:139–148. 1998.
73.
DrogeW. Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function. Physiol Rev, 82:47–95. 2002.
74.
DrogeW, KinscherfR, HildebrandtW, SchmittT. The deficit in low molecular weight thiols as a target for antiageing therapy. Curr Drug Targets, 7:1505–1512. 2006.
75.
DrogeW, SchipperHM. Oxidative stress and aberrant signaling in aging and cognitive decline. Aging Cell, 6:361–70. 2007.
76.
DuranA, Diaz-MecoMT, MoscatJ. Essential role of RelA Ser311 phosphorylation by zetaPKC in NF-kappaB transcriptional activation. EMBO J, 22:3910–3918. 2003.
77.
el-RemessyAB, BartoliM, PlattDH, FultonD, CaldwellRB. Oxidative stress inactivates VEGF survival signaling in retinal endothelial cells via PI 3-kinase tyrosine nitration. J Cell Sci, 118:243–252. 2005.
78.
ElchuriS, OberleyTD, QiW, EisensteinRS, Jackson RobertsL, Van RemmenH, EpsteinCJ, HuangTT. CuZnSOD deficiency leads to persistent and widespread oxidative damage and hepatocarcinogenesis later in life. Oncogene, 24:367–380. 2005.
79.
EllerbyLM, EllerbyHM, ParkSM, HolleranAL, MurphyAN, FiskumG, KaneDJ, TestaMP, KayalarC, BredesenDE. Shift of the cellular oxidation-reduction potential in neural cells expressing Bcl-2. J Neurochem, 67:1259–1267. 1996.
80.
EmerlingBM, PlataniasLC, BlackE, NebredaAR, DavisRJ, ChandelNS. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is required for hypoxia signaling. Mol Cell Biol, 25:4853–4862. 2005.
81.
EnglandK, CotterTG. Direct oxidative modifications of signalling proteins in mammalian cells and their effects on apoptosis. Redox Rep, 10:237–245. 2005.
82.
FantinVR, St-PierreJ, LederP. Attenuation of LDH-A expression uncovers a link between glycolysis, mitochondrial physiology, and tumor maintenance. Cancer Cell, 9:425–434. 2006.
83.
FaraciFM, DidionSP. Vascular protection: superoxide dismutase isoforms in the vessel wall. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 24:1367–1373. 2004.
84.
FaraonioR, VergaraP, Di MarzoD, PierantoniMG, NapolitanoM, RussoT, CiminoF. p53 suppresses the Nrf2-dependent transcription of antioxidant response genes. J Biol Chem, 281:39776–39784. 2006.
85.
FelsherDW, BishopJM. Transient excess of MYC activity can elicit genomic instability and tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96:3940–3944. 1999.
86.
Fernandez-LunaJL. Bcr-Abl and inhibition of apoptosis in chronic myelogenous leukemia cells. Apoptosis, 5:315–318. 2000.
87.
FischerU, Schulze-OsthoffK. Apoptosis-based therapies and drug targets. Cell Death Differ, 12,suppl 1:942–961. 2005.
88.
FrancoR, CidlowskiJA. SLCO/OATP-like transport of glutathione in fasL-induced Apoptosis: glutathione efflux is coupled to an organic anion exchange and is necessary for the progression of the execution phase of apoptosis. J Biol Chem, 281:29542–29557. 2006.
89.
FruehaufJP, MeyskensFLJr. Reactive oxygen species: a breath of life or death?Clin Cancer Res, 13:789–794. 2007.
90.
FuldaS, DebatinKM. HIF-1-regulated glucose metabolism: a key to apoptosis resistance?Cell Cycle, 6:790–792. 2007
91.
GeislerF, AlgulH, PaxianS, SchmidRM. Genetic inactivation of RelA/p65 sensitizes adult mouse hepatocytes to TNF-induced apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. Gastroenterology, 132:2489–2503. 2007.
GhezziP. Review: regulation of protein function by glutathionylation. Free Radic Res, 39:573–580. 2005.
95.
GhibelliL, FanelliC, RotilioG, LafaviaE, CoppolaS, ColussiC, CivitarealeP, CirioloMR. Rescue of cells from apoptosis by inhibition of active GSH extrusion. FASEB J, 12:479–486. 1998.
96.
GilmoreTD. Introduction to NF-kappaB: players, pathways, perspectives. Oncogene, 25:6680–6684. 2006.
97.
GiorgioM, MigliaccioE, OrsiniF, PaolucciD, MoroniM, ContursiC, PellicciaG, LuziL, MinucciS, MarcaccioM, PintonP, RizzutoR, BernardiP, PaolucciF, PelicciPG. Electron transfer between cytochrome c and p66Shc generates reactive oxygen species that trigger mitochondrial apoptosis. Cell, 122:221–233. 2005.
98.
GirottiAW. Lipid hydroperoxide generation, turnover, and effector action in biological systems. J Lipid Res, 39:1529–1542. 1998.
99.
GogvadzeV, OrreniusS, ZhivotovskyB. Multiple pathways of cytochrome c release from mitochondria in apoptosis. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1757:639–647. 2006.
100.
GorlachA, DieboldI, Schini-KerthVB, Berchner-PfannschmidtU, RothU, BrandesRP, KietzmannT, BusseR. Thrombin activates the hypoxia-inducible factor-1 signaling pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells: role of the p22(phox)-containing NADPH oxidase. Circ Res, 89:47–54. 2001.
101.
GotohY, CooperJA. Reactive oxygen species- and dimerization-induced activation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 in tumor necrosis factor-alpha signal transduction. J Biol Chem, 273:17477–17482. 1998.
102.
GreenDR, ChipukJE. p53 and metabolism: Inside the TIGAR. Cell, 126:30–32. 2006.
103.
GreenRM, GrahamM, R.O'DonovanM, ChipmanJK, HodgesJN. Subcellular compartmentalization of glutathione: correlations with parameters of oxidative stress related to genotoxicity. Mutagenesis, 21:383–390. 2006.
104.
GreijerAE, van der WallE. The role of hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) in hypoxia induced apoptosis. J Clin Pathol, 57:1009–1014. 2004.
105.
GuoJ, ZhuT, XiaoZ-XJ, ChenC-Y. Modulation of intracellular signaling pathways to induce apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. J Biol Chem, 282:24364–24372. 2007.
106.
GuzmanML, LiX, CorbettCA, RossiRM, BushnellT, LiesveldJL, HebertJ, YoungF, JordanCT. Rapid and selective death of leukemia stem and progenitor cells induced by the compound 4-benzyl, 2-methyl, 1,2,4-thiadiazolidine, 3,5 dione (TDZD-8)Blood, 110:4436–4444. 2007.
107.
HaddadJJ. Antioxidant and prooxidant mechanisms in the regulation of redox(y)-sensitive transcription factors. Cell Signal, 14:879–897. 2002.
108.
HagenT, TaylorCT, LamF, MoncadaS. Redistribution of intracellular oxygen in hypoxia by nitric oxide: effect on HIF1alpha. Science, 302:1975–1978. 2003.
109.
HaghdoostS, CzeneS, NaslundI, SkogS, Harms-RingdahlM. Extracellular 8-oxo-dG as a sensitive parameter for oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro. Free Radic Res, 39:153–162. 2005.
110.
HainautP, MilnerJ. Redox modulation of p53 conformation and sequence-specific DNA binding in vitro. Cancer Res, 53:4469–4473. 1993.
111.
HainautP, MannK. Zinc binding and redox control of p53 structure and function. Antioxid Redox Signal, 3:611–623. 2001.
112.
HamptonMB, OrreniusS. Dual regulation of caspase activity by hydrogen peroxide: implications for apoptosis. FEBS Lett, 414:552–556. 1997.
113.
HanahanD, WeinbergRA. The hallmarks of cancer. Cell, 100:57–70. 2000.
114.
HancockJT, DesikanR, NeillSJ. Does the redox status of cytochrome c act as a fail-safe mechanism in the regulation of programmed cell death?Free Radic Biol Med, 31:697–703. 2001.
HauptY, MayaR, KazazA, OrenM. Mdm2 promotes the rapid degradation of p53. Nature, 387:296–299. 1997.
117.
HaydenMS, GhoshS. Signaling to NF-kappaB. Genes Dev, 18:2195–2204. 2004.
118.
HayesJD, McMahonM. Molecular basis for the contribution of the antioxidant responsive element to cancer chemoprevention. Cancer Lett, 174:103–113. 2001.
119.
HenebergP, DraberP. Regulation of cys-based protein tyrosine phosphatases via reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in mast cells and basophils. Curr Med Chem, 12:1859–1871. 2005.
120.
HessDT, MatsumotoA, KimSO, MarshallHE, StamlerJS. Protein S-nitrosylation: purview and parameters. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 6:150–166. 2005.
121.
HilbergF, AguzziA, HowellsN, WagnerEF. c-Jun is essential for normal mouse development and hepatogenesis. Nature, 365:179–181. 1993.
122.
HockenberyDM, OltvaiZN, YinXM, MillimanCL, KorsmeyerSJ. Bcl-2 functions in an antioxidant pathway to prevent apoptosis. Cell, 75:241–251. 1993.
HornHF, VousdenKH. Coping with stress: multiple ways to activate p53. Oncogene, 26:1306–1316. 2007.
125.
HuY, RosenDG, ZhouY, FengL, YangG, LiuJ, HuangP. Mitochondrial manganese-superoxide dismutase expression in ovarian cancer: role in cell proliferation and response to oxidative stress. J Biol Chem, 280:39485–39492. 2005.
126.
HuangHC, NguyenT, PickettCB. Phosphorylation of Nrf2 at Ser-40 by protein kinase C regulates antioxidant response element-mediated transcription. J Biol Chem, 277:42769–42774. 2002.
127.
HuangLE, AranyZ, LivingstonDM, BunnHF. Activation of hypoxia-inducible transcription factor depends primarily upon redox-sensitive stabilization of its alpha subunit. J Biol Chem, 271:32253–32259. 1996.
128.
HuangP, FengL, OldhamEA, KeatingMJ, PlunkettW. Superoxide dismutase as a target for the selective killing of cancer cells. Nature, 407:390–395. 2000.
129.
InoueM, SatoEF, NishikawaM, ParkAM, KiraY, ImadaI, UtsumiK. Mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species and its role in aerobic life. Curr Med Chem, 10:2495–2505. 2003.
130.
IraniK, XiaY, ZweierJL, SollottSJ, DerCJ, FearonER, SundaresanM, FinkelT, Goldschmidt-ClermontPJ. Mitogenic signaling mediated by oxidants in Ras-transformed fibroblasts. Science, 275:1649–1652. 1997.
131.
IshiiT, ItohK, TakahashiS, SatoH, YanagawaT, KatohY, BannaiS, YamamotoM. Transcription factor nrf2 coordinately regulates a group of oxidative stress-inducible genes in macro-phages. J Biol Chem, 275:16023–16029. 2000.
132.
ItohK, ChibaT, TakahashiS, IshiiT, IgarashiK, KatohY, OyakeT, HayashiN, SatohK, HatayamaI, YamamotoM, NabeshimaY-i. An Nrf2/Small maf heterodimer mediates the induction of phase ii detoxifying enzyme genes through antioxidant response elements. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 236:313–322. 1997.
133.
ItohK, WakabayashiN, KatohY, IshiiT, IgarashiK, EngelJD, YamamotoM. Keap1 represses nuclear activation of antioxidant responsive elements by Nrf2 through binding to the aminoterminal NeH2 domain. Genes Dev, 13:76–86. 1999.
134.
JaakkolaP, MoleDR, TianYM, WilsonMI, GielbertJ, GaskellSJ, KriegsheimA, HebestreitHF, MukherjiM, SchofieldCJ, MaxwellPH, PughCW, RatcliffePJ. Targeting of HIF-alpha to the von Hippel-Lindau ubiquitylation complex by O2-regulated prolyl hydroxylation. Science, 292:468–472. 2001.
135.
JaspersI, ZhangW, FraserA, SametJM, ReedW. Hydrogen peroxide has opposing effects on IKK activity and Ikappa-Balpha breakdown in airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 24:769–777. 2001.
136.
JeongWS, JunM, KongAN. Nrf2: a potential molecular target for cancer chemoprevention by natural compounds. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:99–106. 2006.
137.
JohnsonL. Protein kinases and their therapeutic exploitation. Biochem Soc Trans, 035:7–11. 2007.
138.
JohnstoneRW, RuefliAA, LoweSW. Apoptosis: a link between cancer genetics and chemotherapy. Cell, 108:153–164. 2002.
139.
KCS, CarcamoJM, GoldeDW. Antioxidants prevent oxidative DNA damage and cellular transformation elicited by the over-expression of c-MYC. Mutat Res, 593:64–79. 2006.
140.
KabeY, AndoK, HiraoS, YoshidaM, HandaH. Redox regulation of NF-κB activation: distinct redox regulation between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Antioxid Redox Signal, 7:395–403. 2005.
141.
KaganVE, FabisiakJP, ShvedovaAA, TyurinaYY, TyurinVA, SchorNF, KawaiK. Oxidative signaling pathway for externalization of plasma membrane phosphatidylserine during apoptosis. FEBS Lett, 477:1–7. 2000.
142.
KaganVE, TyurinVA, JiangJ, TyurinaYY, RitovVB, AmoscatoAA, OsipovAN, BelikovaNA, KapralovAA, KiniV, VlasovaII, ZhaoQ, ZouM, DiP, SvistunenkoDA, KurnikovIV, BorisenkoGG. cytochrome c acts as a cardiolipin oxygenase required for release of proapoptotic factors. Nat Chem Biol, 1:223–232. 2005.
KamataH, ManabeT, OkaS, KamataK, HirataH. Hydrogen peroxide activates IkappaB kinases through phosphorylation of serine residues in the activation loops. FEBS Lett, 519:231–237. 2002.
145.
KamataH, HondaS, MaedaS, ChangL, HirataH, KarinM. Reactive oxygen species promote TNFalpha-induced death and sustained JNK activation by inhibiting MAP kinase phosphatases. Cell, 120:649–661. 2005.
146.
KarinM. The regulation of AP-1 activity by mitogen-activated protein kinases. J Biol Chem, 270:16483–16486. 1995.
147.
KarinM, LinA. NF-kappaB at the crossroads of life and death. Nat Immunol, 3:221–227. 2002.
148.
KasunoK, TakabuchiS, FukudaK, Kizaka-KondohS, YodoiJ, AdachiT, SemenzaGL, HirotaK. Nitric oxide induces hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation that is dependent on MAPK and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling. J Biol Chem, 279:2550–2558. 2004.
149.
KatsuokaF, MotohashiH, EngelJD, YamamotoM. Nrf2 transcriptionally activates the mafG gene through an antioxidant response element. J Biol Chem, 280:4483–4490. 2005.
150.
KatsuokaF, MotohashiH, IshiiT, AburataniH, EngelJD, YamamotoM. Genetic evidence that small maf proteins are essential for the activation of antioxidant response element-dependent genes. Mol Cell Biol, 25:8044–8051. 2005.
151.
KehrerJP. The Haber-Weiss reaction and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicology, 149:43–50. 2000.
152.
KietzmannT, FreimannS, BratkeJ, JungermannK. Regulation of the gluconeogenic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glycolytic aldolase A gene expression by O2 in rat hepatocyte cultures: involvement of hydrogen peroxide as mediator in the response to O2. FEBS Lett, 388:228–232. 1996.
153.
KietzmannT, GorlachA. Reactive oxygen species in the control of hypoxia-inducible factor-mediated gene expression. Semin Cell Dev Biol, 16:474–486. 2005.
KimJW, TchernyshyovI, SemenzaGL, DangCV. HIF-1-mediated expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase: a metabolic switch required for cellular adaptation to hypoxia. Cell Metab, 3:177–185. 2006
156.
KimY-M, TalanianRV, BilliarTR. Nitric oxide inhibits apoptosis by preventing increases in caspase-3-like activity via two distinct mechanisms. J Biol Chem, 272:31138–31148. 1997.
157.
KissilJL, WalmsleyMJ, HanlonL, HaigisKM, Bender KimCF, Sweet-CorderoA, EckmanMS, TuvesonDA, CapobiancoAJ, TybulewiczVL, JacksT. Requirement for Rac1 in a K-ras induced lung cancer in the mouse. Cancer Res, 67:8089–8094. 2007.
158.
KlattP, MolinaEP, LamasS. Nitric oxide inhibits c-jun DNA binding by specifically targeted S-glutathionylation. J Biol Chem, 274:15857–15864. 1999.
159.
KnebelA, RahmsdorfHJ, UllrichA, HerrlichP. Dephosphorylation of receptor tyrosine kinases as target of regulation by radiation, oxidants or alkylating agents. EMBO J, 15:5314–5325. 1996.
160.
KnowlesHJ, RavalRR, HarrisAL, RatcliffePJ. Effect of ascorbate on the activity of hypoxia-inducible factor in cancer cells. Cancer Res, 63:1764–1768. 2003.
161.
KobayashiA, KangM-I, OkawaH, OhtsujiM, ZenkeY, ChibaT, IgarashiK, YamamotoM. Oxidative stress sensor keap1 functions as an adaptor for cul3-based e3 ligase to regulate proteasomal degradation of Nrf2. Mol Cell Biol, 24:7130–7139. 2004.
162.
KobayashiM, YamamotoM. Molecular mechanisms activating the nrf2-keap1 pathway of antioxidant gene regulation. Antioxid Redox Signal, 7:385–394. 2005.
163.
KobayashiM, YamamotoM. Nrf2-Keap1 regulation of cellular defense mechanisms against electrophiles and reactive oxygen species. Adv Enzyme Regul, 46:113–140. 2006.
164.
KokoszkaJE, CoskunP, EspositoLA, WallaceDC. Increased mitochondrial oxidative stress in the Sod2 (+/−) mouse results in the age-related decline of mitochondrial function culminating in increased apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 98:2278–2283. 2001.
165.
KopninPB, AgapovaLS, KopninBP, ChumakovPM. Repression of sestrin family genes contributes to oncogenic Ras-induced reactive oxygen species up-regulation and genetic instability. Cancer Res, 67:4671–4678. 2007.
166.
KotloKU, YehielyF, EfimovaE, HarastyH, HesabiB, ShchorsK, EinatP, RozenA, BerentE, DeissLP. Nrf2 is an inhibitor of the Fas pathway as identified by Achilles' heel method, a new function-based approach to gene identification in human cells. Oncogene, 22:797–806. 2003.
167.
KowaltowskiAJ, VercesiAE, FiskumG. Bcl-2 prevents mitochondrial permeability transition and cytochrome c release via maintenance of reduced pyridine nucleotides. Cell Death Differ, 7:903–910. 2000.
168.
KowaltowskiAJ, CastilhoRF, VercesiAE. Mitochondrial permeability transition and oxidative stress. FEBS Lett, 495:12–15. 2001.
169.
KubbutatMH, JonesSN, VousdenKH. Regulation of p53 stability by Mdm2. Nature, 387:299–303. 1997.
170.
KujothGC, HionaA, PughTD, SomeyaS, PanzerK, WohlgemuthSE, HoferT, SeoAY, SullivanR, JoblingWA, MorrowJD, Van RemmenH, SedivyJM, YamasobaT, TanokuraM, WeindruchR, LeeuwenburghC, ProllaTA. Mitochondrial DNA mutations, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in mammalian aging. Science, 309:481–484. 2005.
171.
KwakMK, WakabayashiN, ItohK, MotohashiH, YamamotoM, KenslerTW. Modulation of gene expression by cancer chemopreventive dithiolethiones through the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway. Identification of novel gene clusters for cell survival. J Biol Chem, 278:8135–8145. 2003.
172.
KyriakisJM, AvruchJ. Mammalian mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathways activated by stress and inflammation. Physiol Rev, 81:807–869. 2001.
173.
LamkanfiM, FestjensN, DeclercqW, Vanden BergheT, VandenabeeleP. Caspases in cell survival, proliferation and differentiation. Cell Death Differ, 14:44–55. 2007.
LandoD, PeetDJ, GormanJJ, WhelanDA, WhitelawML, BruickRK. FIH-1 is an asparaginyl hydroxylase enzyme that regulates the transcriptional activity of hypoxia-inducible factor. Genes Dev, 16:1466–1471. 2002.
176.
LauFC, Shukitt-HaleB, JosephJA. Nutritional intervention in brain aging: reducing the effects of inflammation and oxidative stress. Subcell Biochem, 42:299–318. 2007.
177.
Le BrasM, ClementMV, PervaizS, BrennerC. Reactive oxygen species and the mitochondrial signaling pathway of cell death. Histol Histopathol, 20:205–219. 2005.
178.
LeeJ-M, CalkinsMJ, ChanK, KanYW, JohnsonJA. Identification of the NF-E2-related factor-2-dependent genes conferring protection against oxidative stress in primary cortical astrocytes using oligonucleotide microarray analysis. J Biol Chem, 278:12029–12038. 2003.
179.
LeeSR, KwonKS, KimSR, RheeSG. Reversible inactivation of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B in A431 cells stimulated with epidermal growth factor. J Biol Chem, 273:15366–15372. 1998.
180.
LeeSR, YangKS, KwonJ, LeeC, JeongW, RheeSG. Reversible inactivation of the tumor suppressor PTEN by H2O2. J Biol Chem, 277:20336–20342. 2002.
181.
LeppaS, ErikssonM, SaffrichR, AnsorgeW, BohmannD. Complex functions of AP-1 transcription factors in differentiation and survival of PC12 cells. Mol Cell Biol, 21:4369–4378. 2001.
182.
LeslieNR. The redox regulation of PI 3-kinase-dependent signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:1765–1774. 2006.
183.
LiF, SonveauxP, RabbaniZN, LiuS, YanB, HuangQ, VujaskovicZ, DewhirstMW, LiCY. Regulation of HIF-1alpha stability through S-nitrosylation. Mol Cell, 26:63–74. 2007.
184.
LilligCH, HolmgrenA. Thioredoxin and related molecules: from biology to health and disease. Antioxid Redox Signal, 9:25–47. 2007.
185.
LinB, KolluriSK, LinF, LiuW, HanY-H, CaoX, DawsonMI, ReedJC, ZhangX-K. Conversion of Bcl-2 from protector to killer by interaction with nuclear orphan receptor nur77/TR3. Cell, 116:527–540. 2004.
186.
LiuH, NishitohH, IchijoH, KyriakisJM. Activation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) by tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 requires prior dissociation of the ASK1 inhibitor thioredoxin. Mol Cell Biol, 20:2198–2208. 2000.
187.
LiuQ, Berchner-PfannschmidtU, MollerU, BrechtM, WotzlawC, AckerH, JungermannK, KietzmannT. A Fenton reaction at the endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the redox control of hypoxia-inducible gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101:4302–4307. 2004.
188.
LiuR-M, ChoiJ. Age-associated decline in [gamma]-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene expression in rats. Free Radic Biol Med, 28:566–574. 2000.
189.
LiuX-M, PeytonKJ, EnsenatD, WangH, HanninkM, AlamJ, DuranteW. Nitric oxide stimulates heme oxygenase-1 gene transcription via the Nrf2/ARE complex to promote vascular smooth muscle cell survival. Cardiovasc Res, 75:381–389. 2007.
190.
LiuY, KernJT, WalkerJR, JohnsonJA, SchultzPG, LueschH. A genomic screen for activators of the antioxidant response element. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 104:5205–5210. 2007.
191.
LizundiaR, ChaussepiedM, HuerreM, WerlingD, Di SantoJP, LangsleyG. c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase/c-Jun signaling promotes survival and metastasis of B lymphocytes transformed by Theileria. Cancer Res, 66:6105–6110. 2006.
192.
LoebLA, WallaceDC, MartinGM. The mitochondrial theory of aging and its relationship to reactive oxygen species damage and somatic mtDNA mutations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102:18769–18770. 2005.
LuH, ForbesRA, VermaA. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 activation by aerobic glycolysis implicates the Warburg effect in carcinogenesis. J Biol Chem, 277:23111–23115. 2002.
195.
LuYP, LouYR, YenP, NewmarkHL, MirochnitchenkoOI, InouyeM, HuangMT. Enhanced skin carcinogenesis in transgenic mice with high expression of glutathione peroxidase or both glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. Cancer Res, 57:1468–1474. 1997.
196.
MadridLV, MayoMW, ReutherJY, BaldwinASJr. Akt stimulates the transactivation potential of the relA/p65 subunit of NF-kappa B through utilization of the Ikappa B kinase and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38. J Biol Chem, 276:18934–18940. 2001.
197.
MaiorinoM, AumannKD, Brigelius-FloheR, DoriaD, van den HeuvelJ, McCarthyJ, RoveriA, UrsiniF, FloheL. Probing the presumed catalytic triad of a selenium-containing peroxidase by mutational analysis. Z Ernahrungswiss, 37,suppl 1:118–121. 1998.
198.
MakiCG, HuibregtseJM, HowleyPM. In vivo ubiquitination and proteasome-mediated degradation of p53(1)Cancer Res, 56:2649–2654. 1996.
199.
MallisRJ, BussJE, ThomasJA. Oxidative modification of H-ras: S-thiolation and S-nitrosylation of reactive cysteines. Biochem J, 355:145–53. 2001.
200.
MarshallHE, StamlerJS. Inhibition of NF-kappa B by S-nitrosylation. Biochemistry, 40:1688–1693. 2001.
201.
MatheuA, MaraverA, KlattP, FloresI, Garcia-CaoI, BorrasC, FloresJM, VinaJ, BlascoMA, SerranoM. Delayed ageing through damage protection by the Arf/p53 pathway. Nature, 448:375–379. 2007.
MatsuzawaA, IchijoH. Stress-responsive protein kinases in redox-regulated apoptosis signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal, 7:472–481. 2005.
204.
MatthewsJR, WakasugiN, VirelizierJL, YodoiJ, HayRT. Thioredoxin regulates the DNA binding activity of NF-kappa B by reduction of a disulphide bond involving cysteine 62. Nucleic Acids Res, 20:3821–3830. 1992.
McCubreyJA, LaHairMM, FranklinRA. Reactive oxygen species-induced activation of the MAP kinase signaling pathways. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:1775–1789. 2006.
207.
MengTC, FukadaT, TonksNK. Reversible oxidation and inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases in vivo. Mol Cell, 9:387–399. 2002.
208.
MetzenE, ZhouJ, JelkmannW, FandreyJ, BruneB. Nitric oxide impairs normoxic degradation of HIF-1alpha by inhibition of prolyl hydroxylases. Mol Biol Cell, 14:3470–3481. 2003.
209.
MigliaccioE, GiorgioM, MeleS, PelicciG, ReboldiP, PandolfiPP, LanfranconeL, PelicciPG. The p66shc adaptor protein controls oxidative stress response and life span in mammals. Nature, 402:309–313. 1999.
210.
MitomoK, NakayamaK, FujimotoK, SunX, SekiS, YamamotoK. Two different cellular redox systems regulate the DNA-binding activity of the p50 subunit of NF-kappa B in vitro. Gene, 145:197–203. 1994.
211.
MonksTJ, XieR, TikooK, LauSS. Ros-induced histone modifications and their role in cell survival and cell death. Drug Metab Rev, 38:755–767. 2006.
212.
MoritaK, SaitohM, TobiumeK, MatsuuraH, EnomotoS, NishitohH, IchijoH. Negative feedback regulation of ASK1 by protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) in response to oxidative stress. EMBO J, 20:6028–6036. 2001.
213.
MoritoN, YohK, ItohK, HirayamaA, KoyamaA, YamamotoM, TakahashiS. Nrf2 regulates the sensitivity of death receptor signals by affecting intracellular glutathione levels. Oncogene, 22:9275–9281. 2003.
214.
MossRW. Do antioxidants interfere with radiation therapy for cancer?Integr Cancer Ther, 6:281–292. 2007.
215.
MotohashiH, KatsuokaF, EngelJD, YamamotoM. Small Maf proteins serve as transcriptional cofactors for keratinocyte differentiation in the Keap1-Nrf2 regulatory pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101:6379–6384. 2004.
216.
MottetD, DumontV, DeccacheY, DemazyC, NinaneN, RaesM, MichielsC. Regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha protein level during hypoxic conditions by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/glycogen synthase kinase 3beta pathway in HepG2 cells. J Biol Chem, 278:31277–31285. 2003.
217.
MuZM, YinXY, ProchownikEV. Pag, a putative tumor suppressor, interacts with the Myc Box II domain of c-Myc and selectively alters its biological function and target gene expression. J Biol Chem, 277:43175–43184. 2002.
218.
MullerFL, LustgartenMS, JangY, RichardsonA, Van RemmenH. Trends in oxidative aging theories. Free Radic Biol Med, 43:477–503. 2007.
219.
MurataH, IharaY, NakamuraH, YodoiJ, SumikawaK, KondoT. Glutaredoxin exerts an antiapoptotic effect by regulating the redox state of Akt. J Biol Chem, 278:50226–50233. 2003.
220.
MutoA, TashiroS, TsuchiyaH, KumeA, KannoM, ItoE, YamamotoM, IgarashiK. Activation of Maf/AP-1 repressor BacH2 by oxidative stress promotes apoptosis and its interaction with promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies. J Biol Chem, 277:20724–20733. 2002.
221.
NadeauPJ, CharetteSJ, ToledanoMB, LandryJ. Disulfide bond-mediated multimerization of ask1 and its reduction by thioredoxin-1 regulate H2O2-induced c-jun NH2-terminal kinase activation and apoptosis. Mol Biol Cell, 18:3903–3913. 2007.
222.
NakamuraH, NakamuraK, YodoiJ. Redox regulation of cellular activation. Annu Rev Immunol, 15:351–369. 1997.
223.
NakamuraT, GuZ, LiptonSA. Contribution of glutamatergic signaling to nitrosative stress-induced protein misfolding in normal brain aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Aging Cell, 6:351–359. 2007.
224.
NakanoH, NakajimaA, Sakon-KomazawaS, PiaoJH, XueX, OkumuraK. Reactive oxygen species mediate crosstalk between NF-kappaB and JNK. Cell Death Differ, 13:730–737. 2006.
225.
NawataR, YujiriT, NakamuraY, AriyoshiK, TakahashiT, SatoY, OkaY, TanizawaY. MEK kinase 1 mediates the antiapoptotic effect of the Bcr-Abl oncogene through NF-kappaB activation. Oncogene, 22:7774–7780. 2003.
226.
NemotoS, DiDonatoJA, LinA. Coordinate regulation of IkappaB kinases by mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 1 and NF-kappaB-inducing kinase. Mol Cell Biol, 18:7336–7343. 1998.
227.
NowickiMO, FalinskiR, KoptyraM, SlupianekA, StoklosaT, GlocE, Nieborowska-SkorskaM, BlasiakJ, SkorskiT. BCR/ABL oncogenic kinase promotes unfaithful repair of the reactive oxygen species-dependent DNA double-strand breaks. Blood, 104:3746–3753. 2004.
OgryzkoVV, SchiltzRL, RussanovaV, HowardBH, NakataniY. The transcriptional coactivators p300 and CBP are histone acetyltransferases. Cell, 87:953–959. 1996.
230.
OlinerJD, KinzlerKW, MeltzerPS, GeorgeDL, VogelsteinB. Amplification of a gene encoding a p53-associated protein in human sarcomas. Nature, 358:80–83. 1992.
231.
OmennGS, GoodmanGE, ThornquistMD, BalmesJ, CullenMR, GlassA, KeoghJP, MeyskensFLJr, ValanisB, WilliamsJHJr., BarnhartS, CherniackMG, BrodkinCA, HammarS. Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst, 88:1550–1559. 1996.
232.
OmennGS, GoodmanGE, ThornquistMD, BalmesJ, CullenMR, GlassA, KeoghJP, MeyskensFL, ValanisB, WilliamsJH, BarnhartS, HammarS. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med, 334:1150–1155. 1996.
233.
OttM, ZhivotovskyB, OrreniusS. Role of cardiolipin in cytochrome c release from mitochondria. Cell Death Differ, 14:1243–1247. 2007.
PanS, BerkBC. Glutathiolation regulates tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced caspase-3 cleavage and apoptosis: key role for glutaredoxin in the death pathway. Circ Res, 100:213–219. 2007.
236.
PantanoC, ReynaertNL, van der VlietA, Janssen-HeiningerYM. Redox-sensitive kinases of the nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathway. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:1791–1806. 2006.
237.
ParkHS, HuhSH, KimMS, LeeSH, ChoiEJ. Nitric oxide negatively regulates c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase by means of S-nitrosylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 97:14382–14387. 2000.
238.
ParkHS, LeeJS, HuhSH, SeoJS, ChoiEJ. Hsp72 functions as a natural inhibitory protein of c-Jun N-terminal kinase. EMBO J, 20:446–456. 2001.
239.
PelicanoH, CarneyD, HuangP. ROS stress in cancer cells and therapeutic implications. Drug Resist Update, 7:97–110. 2004.
240.
PelicanoH, XuRH, DuM, FengL, SasakiR, CarewJS, HuY, RamdasL, HuL, KeatingMJ, ZhangW, PlunkettW, HuangP. Mitochondrial respiration defects in cancer cells cause activation of Akt survival pathway through a redox-mediated mechanism. J Cell Biol, 175:913–923. 2006.
241.
PenningtonJD, WangTJ, NguyenP, SunL, BishtK, SmartD, GiusD. Redox-sensitive signaling factors as a novel molecular targets for cancer therapy. Drug Resist Update, 8:322–330. 2005.
242.
PervaizS. Pro-oxidant milieu blunts scissors: insight into tumor progression, drug resistance, and novel druggable targets. Curr Pharm Des, 12:4469–4477. 2006.
243.
PinchukI, SchnitzerE, LichtenbergD. Kinetic analysis of copper-induced peroxidation of LDL. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1389:155–172. 1998.
244.
Pineda-MolinaE, KlattP, VazquezJ, MarinaA, Garcia de LacobaM, Perez-SalaD, LamasS. Glutathionylation of the p50 subunit of NF-kappaB: a mechanism for redox-induced inhibition of DNA binding. Biochemistry, 40:14134–14142. 2001.
245.
PoeggelerB. Melatonin, aging, and age-related diseases: perspectives for prevention, intervention, and therapy. Endocrine, 27:201–212. 2005.
246.
PooleLB, KarplusPA, ClaiborneA. Protein sulfenic acids in redox signaling. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 44:325–347. 2004.
247.
PoppekD, GruneT. Proteasomal defense of oxidative protein modifications. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:173–184. 2006.
248.
PouyssegurJ, Mechta-GrigoriouF. Redox regulation of the hypoxia-inducible factor. Biol Chem, 387:1337–1346. 2006.
RadiskyDC, LevyDD, LittlepageLE, LiuH, NelsonCM, FataJE, LeakeD, GoddenEL, AlbertsonDG, NietoMA, WerbZ, BissellMJ. Rac1b and reactive oxygen species mediate MMP-3-induced EMT and genomic instability. Nature, 436:123–127. 2005.
251.
RahmanI, GilmourPS, JimenezLA, MacNeeW. Oxidative stress and TNF-alpha induce histone acetylation and NF-kap-paB/AP-1 activation in alveolar epithelial cells: potential mechanism in gene transcription in lung inflammation. Mol Cell Biochem, 234–235:239–248. 2002.
252.
RahmanI, MarwickJ, KirkhamP. Redox modulation of chromatin remodeling: impact on histone acetylation and deacetylation, NF-kappaB and pro-inflammatory gene expression. Biochem Pharmacol, 68:1255–1267. 2004.
253.
RanQ, LiangH, GuM, QiW, WalterCA, RobertsLJ2nd, HermanB, RichardsonA, Van RemmenH. Transgenic mice over-expressing glutathione peroxidase 4 are protected against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem, 279:55137–55146. 2004.
254.
RauhalaP, LinAM, ChiuehCC. Neuroprotection by S-nitrosoglutathione of brain dopamine neurons from oxidative stress. FASEB J, 12:165–173. 1998.
255.
RebrinI, KamzalovS, SohalRS. Effects of age and caloric restriction on glutathione redox state in mice. Free Radic Biol Med, 35:626–635. 2003.
256.
ReinsteinE, CiechanoverA. Narrative review: protein degradation and human diseases: the ubiquitin connection. Ann Intern Med, 145:676–684. 2006.
257.
RequenaJR, FuMX, AhmedMU, JenkinsAJ, LyonsTJ, ThorpeSR. Lipoxidation products as biomarkers of oxidative damage to proteins during lipid peroxidation reactions. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 11,suppl 5:48–53. 1996.
258.
ReynaertNL, ClessK, KornSH, VosN, GualaAS, WoutersEF, van der VlietA, Janssen-HeiningerYM. Nitric oxide represses inhibitory kappaB kinase through S-nitrosylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 101:8945–8950. 2004.
259.
ReynaertNL, van der VlietA, GualaAS, McGovernT, HristovaM, PantanoC, HeintzNH, HeimJ, HoYS, MatthewsDE, WoutersEF, Janssen-HeiningerYM. Dynamic redox control of NF-kappaB through glutaredoxin-regulated S-glutathionylation of inhibitory kappaB kinase beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 103:13086–13091. 2006.
260.
RheeSG, YangK-S, KangSW, WooHA, ChangT-S. Controlled elimination of intracellular H2O2: regulation of peroxiredoxin, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase via post-translational modification. Antioxid Redox Signal, 7:619–626. 2005.
261.
RiveraA, MaxwellSA. The p53-induced gene-6 (proline oxidase) mediates apoptosis through a calcineurin-dependent pathway. J Biol Chem, 280:29346–29354. 2005.
SablinaAA, BudanovAV, IlyinskayaGV, AgapovaLS, KravchenkoJE, ChumakovPM. The antioxidant function of the p53 tumor suppressor. Nat Med, 11:1306–1313. 2005.
264.
SaitohM, NishitohH, FujiiM, TakedaK, TobiumeK, SawadaY, KawabataM, MiyazonoK, IchijoH. Mammalian thioredoxin is a direct inhibitor of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK) 1. EMBO J, 17:2596–2606. 1998.
265.
SalmeenA, BarfordD. Functions and mechanisms of redox regulation of cysteine-based phosphatases. Antioxid Redox Signal, 7:560–577. 2005.
266.
SarbassovDD, GuertinDA, AliSM, SabatiniDM. Phosphorylation and regulation of Akt/PKB by the rictor-mTOR complex. Science, 307:1098–1101. 2005.
267.
SarkisianCJ, KeisterBA, StairsDB, BoxerRB, MoodySE, ChodoshLA. Dose-dependent oncogene-induced senescence in vivo and its evasion during mammary tumorigenesis. Nat Cell Biol, 9:493–505. 2007.
268.
SattlerM, VermaS, ShrikhandeG, ByrneCH, PrideYB, WinklerT, GreenfieldEA, SalgiaR, GriffinJD. The BCR/ABL tyrosine kinase induces production of reactive oxygen species in hematopoietic cells. J Biol Chem, 275:24273–24278. 2000.
269.
SchiekeSM, BrivibaK, KlotzLO, SiesH. Activation pattern of mitogen-activated protein kinases elicited by peroxynitrite: attenuation by selenite supplementation. FEBS Lett, 448:301–303. 1999.
270.
SchofieldCJ, RatcliffePJ. Signalling hypoxia by HIF hydroxylases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 338:617–626. 2005.
271.
SchonhoffCM, GastonB, MannickJB. Nitrosylation of cytochrome c during apoptosis. J Biol Chem, 278:18265–18270. 2003.
272.
SchopferFJ, BakerPRS, FreemanBA. NO-dependent protein nitration: a cell signaling event or an oxidative inflammatory response?Trends Biochem Sci, 28:646–654. 2003.
273.
SchrinerSE, LinfordNJ, MartinGM, TreutingP, OgburnCE, EmondM, CoskunPE, LadigesW, WolfN, Van RemmenH, WallaceDC, RabinovitchPS. Extension of murine life span by overexpression of catalase targeted to mitochondria. Science, 308:1909–1911. 2005.
274.
SchwartzJL. The dual roles of nutrients as antioxidants and prooxidants: their effects on tumor cell growth. J Nutr, 126:1221S–1227S. 1996.
275.
SerranoM, LinAW, McCurrachME, BeachD, LoweSW. Oncogenic ras provokes premature cell senescence associated with accumulation of p53 and p16INK4a. Cell, 88:593–602. 1997.
ShaulianE, SchreiberM, PiuF, BeecheM, WagnerEF, KarinM. The mammalian UV response: c-jun induction is required for exit from p53-imposed growth arrest. Cell, 103:897–907. 2000.
278.
ShaulianE, KarinM. AP-1 as a regulator of cell life and death. Nat Cell Biol, 4:E131–E136. 2002.
279.
SheehanD, MeadeG, FoleyVM, DowdCA. Structure, function and evolution of glutathione transferases: implications for classification of non-mammalian members of an ancient enzyme superfamily. Biochem J, 360:1–16. 2001.
280.
ShenHM, LiuZG. JNK signaling pathway is a key modulator in cell death mediated by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Free Radic Biol Med, 40:928–939. 2006.
SongJJ, RheeJG, SuntharalingamM, WalshSA, SpitzDR, LeeYJ. Role of glutaredoxin in metabolic oxidative stress: glutaredoxin as a sensor of oxidative stress mediated by H2O2. J Biol Chem, 277:46566–46575. 2002.
284.
SoussiT, WimanKG. Shaping genetic alterations in human cancer: the p53 mutation paradigm. Cancer Cell, 12:303–312. 2007.
285.
SquierTC. Redox modulation of cellular metabolism through targeted degradation of signaling proteins by the proteasome. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:217–228. 2006.
286.
SrinivasanA, LehmlerHJ, RobertsonLW, LudewigG. Production of DNA strand breaks in vitro and reactive oxygen species in vitro and in HL-60 cells by PCB metabolites. Toxicol Sci, 60:92–102. 2001.
287.
StadtmanER. Role of oxidant species in aging. Curr Med Chem, 11:1105–1112. 2004.
288.
SuH, BidereN, ZhengL, CubreA, SakaiK, DaleJ, SalmenaL, HakemR, StrausS, LenardoM. Requirement for caspase-8 in NF-kappaB activation by antigen receptor. Science, 307:1465–1468. 2005.
289.
SuhJH, ShenviSV, DixonBM, LiuH, JaiswalAK, LiuR-M, HagenTM. Decline in transcriptional activity of Nrf2 causes age-related loss of glutathione synthesis, which is reversible with lipoic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A, 101:3381–3386. 2004.
290.
SuiH, WangW, WangPH, LiuLS. Protective effect of antioxidant ebselen (PZ51) on the cerebral cortex of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertens Res, 28:249–254. 2005.
291.
SumbayevVV, YasinskaIM. Regulation of MAP kinase-dependent apoptotic pathway: implication of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Arch Biochem Biophys, 436:406–412. 2005.
292.
SunJ, SteenbergenC, MurphyE. S-Nitrosylation: no-related redox signaling to protect against oxidative stress. Antioxid Redox Signal, 8:1693–1705. 2006.
293.
SzaboC, IschiropoulosH, RadiR. Peroxynitrite: biochemistry, pathophysiology and development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov, 6:662–680. 2007.
294.
SzatrowskiTP, NathanCF. Production of large amounts of hydrogen peroxide by human tumor cells. Cancer Res, 51:794–798. 1991.
295.
TanKP, YangM, ItoS. Activation of Nrf2 by toxic bile acids provokes adaptive Defense responses to enhance cell survival at the emergence of oxidative stress. Mol Pharmacol Epub ahead of print, 2007.
296.
TanakaH, MatsumuraI, EzoeS, SatohY, SakamakiT, AlbaneseC, MachiiT, PestellRG, KanakuraY. E2F1 and c-Myc potentiate apoptosis through inhibition of NF-kappaB activity that facilitates MnSOD-mediated ROS elimination. Mol Cell, 9:1017–1029. 2002.
297.
TobiumeK, MatsuzawaA, TakahashiT, NishitohH, MoritaK, TakedaK, MinowaO, MiyazonoK, NodaT, IchijoH. ASK1 is required for sustained activations of JNK/p38 MAP kinases and apoptosis. EMBO Rep, 2:222–228. 2001.
298.
ToledanoMB, LeonardWJ. Modulation of transcription factor NF-kappa B binding activity by oxidation-reduction in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 88:4328–4332. 1991.
299.
TomitaY, MarchenkoN, ErsterS, NemajerovaA, DehnerA, KleinC, PanH, KesslerH, PancoskaP, MollUM. WT p53, but not tumor-derived mutants, bind to Bcl2 via the DNA binding domain and induce mitochondrial permeabilization. J Biol Chem, 281:8600–8606. 2006.
300.
TomkoRJJr, BansalP, LazoJS. Airing out an antioxidant role for the tumor suppressor p53. Mol Intervent, 6:23–25. 2006.
301.
TorresM. Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in redox signaling. Front Biosci, 8:d369–d391. 2003.
302.
TrachoothamD, ZhouY, ZhangH, DemizuY, ChenZ, PelicanoH, ChiaoPJ, AchantaG, ArlinghausRB, LiuJ, HuangP. Selective killing of oncogenically transformed cells through a ROS-mediated mechanism by beta-phenylethyl isothiocyanate. Cancer Cell, 10:241–252. 2006.
VafaO, WadeM, KernS, BeecheM, PanditaTK, HamptonGM, WahlGM. c-Myc can induce DNA damage, increase reactive oxygen species, and mitigate p53 function: a mechanism for oncogene-induced genetic instability. Mol Cell, 9:1031–1044. 2002.
309.
ValkoM, RhodesCJ, MoncolJ, IzakovicM, MazurM. Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem Biol Interact, 160:1–40. 2006.
310.
ValkoM, LeibfritzD, MoncolJ, CroninMTD, MazurM, TelserJ. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 39:44–84. 2007.
311.
Van LaethemA, NysK, Van KelstS, ClaerhoutS, IchijoH, VandenheedeJR, GarmynM, AgostinisP. Apoptosis signal regulating kinase-1 connects reactive oxygen species to p38 MAPK-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in UVB-irradiated human keratinocytes. Free Radic Biol Med, 41:1361–1371. 2006.
312.
Van RemmenH, IkenoY, HamiltonM, PahlavaniM, WolfN, ThorpeSR, AldersonNL, BaynesJW, EpsteinCJ, HuangTT, NelsonJ, StrongR, RichardsonA. Life-long reduction in Mn-SOD activity results in increased DNA damage and higher incidence of cancer but does not accelerate aging. Physiol Genomics, 16:29–37. 2003.
313.
Van WaesC. Nuclear factor-kappaB in development, prevention, and therapy of cancer. Clin Cancer Res, 13:1076–1082. 2007.
314.
VandermoereF, El Yazidi-BelkouraI, AdriaenssensE, LemoineJ, HondermarckH. The antiapoptotic effect of fibroblast growth factor-2 is mediated through nuclear factor-kappaB activation induced via interaction between Akt and IkappaB kinase-beta in breast cancer cells. Oncogene, 24:5482–5491. 2005.
315.
VanhaesebroeckB, AlessiDR. The PI3K-PDK1 connection: more than just a road to PKB. Biochem J, 346:561–576. 2000.
VeluCS, NitureSK, DoneanuCE, PattabiramanN, SrivenugopalKS. Human p53 is inhibited by glutathionylation of cysteines present in the proximal DNA-binding domain during oxidative stress. Biochemistry, 46:7765–7780. 2007.
318.
VenugopalR, JaiswalAK. Nrf2 and Nrf1 in association with Jun proteins regulate antioxidant response element-mediated expression and coordinated induction of genes encoding detoxifying enzymes. Oncogene, 17:3145–3156. 1998.
319.
VermeulenL, De WildeG, Van DammeP, Vanden BergheW, HaegemanG. Transcriptional activation of the NF-kappaB p65 subunit by mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase-1 (MSK1)EMBO J, 22:1313–1324. 2003.
320.
VermulstM, BielasJH, KujothGC, LadigesWC, RabinovitchPS, ProllaTA, LoebLA. Mitochondrial point mutations do not limit the natural lifespan of mice. Nat Genet, 39:540–543. 2007.
321.
VictorVM, RochaM. Targeting antioxidants to mitochondria: a potential new therapeutic strategy for cardiovascular diseases. Curr Pharm Des, 13:845–863. 2007.
322.
VilaM, PrzedborskiS. Targeting programmed cell death in neurodegenerative diseases. Nat Rev Neurosci, 4:365–375. 2003.
323.
VlasovaII, TyurinVA, KapralovAA, KurnikovIV, OsipovAN, PotapovichMV, StoyanovskyDA, KaganVE. Nitric oxide inhibits peroxidase activity of cytochrome c cardiolipin complex and blocks cardiolipin oxidation. J Biol Chem, 281:14554–14612. 2006.
WangGL, JiangBH, SemenzaGL. Effect of altered redox states on expression and DNA-binding activity of hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 212:550–556. 1995.
326.
WangT, ArifogluP, RonaiZ, TewKD. Glutathione S-transferase P1–1 (GSTP1–1) inhibits c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK1) signaling through interaction with the C terminus. J Biol Chem, 276:20999–21003. 2001.
WangY, ZeiglerMM, LamGK, HunterMG, EubankTD, KhramtsovVV, TridandapaniS, SenCK, MarshCB. The role of the NADPH oxidase complex, p38 MAPK, and Akt in regulating human monocyte/macrophage survival. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 36:68–77. 2007.
329.
WekRC, CavenerDR. Translational control and the unfolded protein response. Antioxid Redox Signal. Epub ahead of print, 2007.
330.
WelchHC, CoadwellWJ, StephensLR, HawkinsPT. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent activation of Rac. FEBS Lett, 546:93–97. 2003.
331.
WestonCR, DavisRJ. The JNK signal transduction pathway. Curr Opin Cell Biol, 19:142–149. 2007.
332.
WoodZA, SchroderE, Robin HarrisJ, PooleLB. Structure, mechanism and regulation of peroxiredoxins. Trends Biochem Sci, 28:32–40. 2003.
333.
XiaY, WangJ, XuS, JohnsonGL, HunterT, LuZ. MEKK1 mediates the ubiquitination and degradation of c-Jun in response to osmotic stress. Mol Cell Biol, 27:510–517. 2007.
XiaoL, LangW. A dominant role for the c-Jun Nh2-terminal kinase in oncogenic ras-induced morphologic transformation of human lung carcinoma cells. Cancer Res, 60:400–408. 2000.
336.
XueW, ZenderL, MiethingC, DickinsRA, HernandoE, KrizhanovskyV, Cordon-CardoC, LoweSW. Senescence and tumour clearance is triggered by p53 restoration in murine liver carcinomas. Nature, 445:656–660. 2007.
337.
YamaguchiT, SanoK, TakakuraK, SaitoI, ShinoharaY, AsanoT, YasuharaH. Ebselen in acute ischemic stroke: a placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial: Ebselen Study Group. Stroke, 29:12–17. 1998.
338.
YangDD, KuanC-Y, WhitmarshAJ, RinocnM, ZhengTS, DavisRJ, RakicP, FlavellRA. Absence of excitotoxicity-induced apoptosis in the hippocampus of mice lacking the Jnk3 gene. Nature, 389:865–870. 1997.
339.
YarianCS, ToroserD, SohalRS. Aconitase is the main functional target of aging in the citric acid cycle of kidney mitochondria from mice. Mech Ageing Dev, 127:79–84. 2006.
340.
YasukawaT, TokunagaE, OtaH, SugitaH, MartynJA, KanekiM. S-nitrosylation-dependent inactivation of Akt/protein kinase B in insulin resistance. J Biol Chem, 280:7511–7518. 2005.
341.
YoungTW, MeiFC, YangG, Thompson-LanzaJA, LiuJ, ChengX. Activation of antioxidant pathways in ras-mediated oncogenic transformation of human surface ovarian epithelial cells revealed by functional proteomics and mass spectrometry. Cancer Res, 64:4577–4584. 2004.
342.
YuCX, LiS, WhortonAR. Redox regulation of PTEN by S-nitrosothiols. Mol Pharmacol, 68:847–854. 2005.
343.
ZhaoY, WangZB, XuJX. Effect of cytochrome c on the generation and elimination of O2*- and H2O2 in mitochondria. J Biol Chem, 278:2356–2360. 2003.
344.
ZhongH, SuYangH, Erdjument-BromageH, TempstP, GhoshS. The transcriptional activity of NF-kappaB is regulated by the IkappaB-associated PKAc subunit through a cyclic AMP-independent mechanism. Cell, 89:413–424. 1997.
