Restricted accessReview articleFirst published online 2021-11
The Effect of Rosuvastatin on Plasma/Serum Levels of High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein,Interleukin-6,and D-Dimer in People Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Rosuvastatin therapy might have an effect on the inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers. However, the evidence about the effect of rosuvastatin therapy on the high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and D-dimer levels among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) is still unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the relational effect of rosuvastatin therapy on serum/plasma hsCRP, IL-6 and D-dimer levels in PLHIV. The literature search was done from Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The review and meta-analysis included studies written in English language up to January 4, 2020. Random effects model was used to evaluate the pooled standard mean difference with 95% confidence interval. A meta-analysis was performed using nine articles with 392 PLHIV. The result revealed that the plasma/serum levels of IL-6 were significantly reduced after the intervention. However, hsCRP and D-dimer levels showed no significant difference (p > .05) between before and after the intervention. The subgroup analysis showed that there was significant association between PLHIV ages <45 years and cohort studies with IL-6 levels. The current CD4+ counts ≥350 cells/mm3 correlated with hsCRP as well as IL-6. Similarly, nadir CD4+ counts ≥200 cells/mm3 and duration of HIV diagnosis <10 years also showed significant association with IL-6 and D-dimer levels. It was also indicated that participants who were under antiretroviral drug for <7 years were significantly associated with hsCRP levels. This study established that IL-6 levels were significantly reduced after the intervention while hsCRP and D-dimer levels showed no significant difference between before and after the intervention.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
CaoW, HsiehE, LiT: Optimizing treatment for adults with HIV/AIDS in China: Successes over two decades and remaining challenges. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep, 2020; 17:26–34.
2.
PerelloR, VergaraA, MonclusE, et al.: Cytomegalovirus infection in HIV-infected patients in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. BMC Infect Dis, 2019; 19:1030.
3.
JohnsonLF, MayMT: Estimating the impact of antiretroviral treatment on adult mortality trends in South Africa: A mathematical modelling study. PLoS Med, 2017; 14:e1002468.
4.
Dirajlal-FargoS, El KamariV, SattarA, et al.: Effect of statin on arginine metabolites in treated HIV-infection. Atherosclerosis, 2017; 266:74–80.
5.
TawakolA, IshaiA, LiD, et al.: Association of arterial and lymph node inflammation with distinct inflammatory pathways in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Jama Cardiol, 2017; 2:163–171.
6.
So-ArmahK, FreibergMS: HIV and cardiovascular disease: Update on clinical events, special populations, and novel biomarkers. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep, 2018; 15:233–244.
7.
TriantVA: Cardiovascular disease and HIV infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep, 2013; 10:199–206.
8.
PettitAC, GigantiMJ, IngleSM, et al.: Increased non-AIDS mortality among persons with AIDS-defining events after antiretroviral therapy initiation. J Int AIDS Soc, 2018; 21.
9.
MsokaTF, Van GuilderGP, SmuldersYM, van FurthM, BartlettJA, van AgtmaelMA: Association of HIV-infection, antiretroviral treatment and metabolic syndrome with large artery stiffness: A cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis, 2018; 18:708.
10.
Al-KindiSG, OliveiraGH, LongeneckerCT: Burden of heart failure and treatment practices among patients with HIV infection in an era of contemporary antiretroviral therapy. J Card Fail, 2015; 21:S17.
11.
LongeneckerCT, AlencherryB, EremG, et al.: Low prevalence of calcified coronary plaque among Ugandans with and without HIV infection: Comparison with a United States cohort and associations with biomarkers of inflammation. J Int Aids Soc, 2018; 21:60–61.
12.
FaridH, DianP, TitusK, et al.: Cluster of differentiation 4 count and left ventricular diastolic function in patients with Hiv Aids. Int J HIV/AIDS Prev Educ Behav Sci, 2018; 4:5–10.
13.
KnudsenA, ThorsteinssonK, ChristensenTE, et al.: Cardiac microvascular dysfunction in women living with HIV is associated with cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin G. Open Forum Infect Dis, 2018; 5:ofy205.
14.
YenYF, KoMC, YenMY, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus increases the risk of incident heart failure. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr 1999, 2019; 80:255–263.
15.
NtusiN, O'DwyerE, DorrellL, et al.: HIV-1-related cardiovascular disease is associated with chronic inflammation, frequent pericardial effusions, and probable myocardial edema. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging, 2016; 9:e004430.
16.
SubramanyaV, McKayHS, BruscaRM, et al.: Inflammatory biomarkers and subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. PLoS One, 2019; 14:e0214735.
17.
HsuD, MaY, HurS, et al.: Plasma IL-6 levels are independently associated with atherosclerosis and mortality in HIV-infected individuals on suppressive ART. AIDS, 2016; 30:2065–2074.
18.
BenjaminL, KhooS: HIV infection and stroke. Handb Clin Neurol, 2018; 152:187–200.
19.
SinhaA, MaY, ScherzerR, et al.: Role of T-cell dysfunction, inflammation, and coagulation in microvascular disease in HIV. J Am Heart Assoc, 2016; 5:e004243.
20.
SeretiI, KrebsSJ, PhanuphakN, et al.: Persistent, albeit reduced, chronic inflammation in persons starting antiretroviral therapy in acute HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis, 2017; 64:124–131.
21.
ThakurKT, LyonsJL, SmithBR, ShinoharaRT, MateenFJ: Stroke in HIV-infected African Americans: A retrospective cohort study. J Neurovirol, 2016; 22:50–55.
22.
ZaaqoqAM, KhasawnehFA, SmalliganRD: Cardiovascular complications of HIV-associated immune dysfunction. Cardiol Res Pract, 2015; 2015.
23.
PalellaFJ, AlthoffKN, MooreR, et al.: Abacavir use and risk for myocardial infarction in the NA-ACCORD. Top Antivir Med, 2015; 23:335–336.
24.
McComseyGA, KitchD, DaarES, et al.: Inflammation markers after randomization to abacavir/lamivudine or tenofovir/emtricitabine with efavirenz or atazanavir/ritonavir. Aids, 2012; 26:1371–1385.
25.
KelesidisT, TranTTT, SteinJH, et al.: Changes in inflammation and immune activation with atazanavir-, raltegravir-, darunavir-based initial antiviral therapy: ACTG 5260s. Clin Infect Dis, 2015; 61:651–660.
26.
WeissL, ChevalierMF, AssoumouL, et al.: Rosuvastatin is effective to decrease CD8 T-cell activation only in HIV-infected patients with high residual T-cell activation under antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2016; 71:390–398.
27.
LakeJE, CurrierJS: Metabolic disease in HIV infection. Lancet Infect Dis, 2013; 13:964–975.
28.
QuerciaR, RobertsJ, Martin-CarpenterL, ZalaC: Comparative changes of lipid levels in treatment-naive, HIV-1-infected adults treated with dolutegravir vs. efavirenz, raltegravir, and ritonavir-boosted darunavir-based regimens over 48 weeks. Clin Drug Investig, 2015; 35:211–219.
29.
Dirajlal-FargoS, KinleyB, JiangY, et al.: Statin therapy decreases N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide in HIV: Randomized placebo-controlled trial. Aids, 2015; 29:313–321.
30.
CiaffiL, CavassiniM, GenneD, et al.: Switch to etravirine for HIV-positive patients receiving statin treatment: A prospective study. Eur J Clin Investig, 2015; 45:720–730.
31.
LimsrengS, MarcyO, LyS, et al.: Dyslipidemias and elevated cardiovascular risk on lopinavir-based antiretroviral therapy in Cambodia. PLoS One, 2016; 11:e0160306.
32.
MendicinoCC, BragaLP, PaduaCA, GuimaraesMD: High incidence of hypertriglyceridemia in a Brazilian cohort of people living with HIV/AIDS undergoing antiretroviral treatment in Belo Horizonte, 2001–2010. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop, 2016; 49:758–762.
33.
AdalM, HoweR, KassaD, AseffaA, PetrosB: Malnutrition and lipid abnormalities in antiretroviral naive HIV-infected adults in Addis Ababa: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One, 2018; 13:e0195942.
34.
EckardAR, ChoS, O'RiordanMA, McComseyGA: Kallistatin levels in HIV-infected patients and effects of statin therapy. Biomarkers, 2017; 22:55–62.
35.
AgouridisAP, ElisafMS, NairDR, MikhailidisDP: All for statins and statins for all; An update. Curr Pharm Des, 2016; 22:18–27.
36.
GebhardtA, FichtenbaumCJ: Current pharmacotherapy for the treatment of dyslipidemia associated with HIV infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2019; 20:1719–1729.
37.
MasiaM, BernalE, RobledanoC, et al.: Long-term effects of an intensive intervention in HIV-infected patients with moderate-high atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2014; 69:3051–3056.
38.
MorellEB, MartinezM, BravoJ, et al.: Reduction of immune activation in HIV-infected patients after introducing pitavastatin. J Int Aids Soc, 2016; 19:136.
39.
PhuphuakratA, WongsaA, SrichatrapimukS, TassaneetrithepB, KiertiburanakulS, SungkanuparphS: Effects of pitavastatin on atherosclerotic-associated biomarkers in people with HIV. Top Antivir Med, 2018; 26:299s.
40.
NakanjakoD, SsinabulyaI, NabatanziR, et al.: Atorvastatin reduces T-cell activation and exhaustion among HIV-infected cART-treated suboptimal immune responders in Uganda: A randomised crossover placebo-controlled trial. Trop Med Int Health, 2015; 20:380–390.
41.
ToribioM, FitchKV, SanchezL, et al.: Effects of pitavastatin and pravastatin on markers of immune activation and arterial inflammation in HIV. Aids, 2017; 31:797–806.
42.
AslangulE, AssoumouJ, BittarR, et al.: Rosuvastatin versus pravastatin in dyslipidemic HIV-1-infected patients receiving protease inhibitors: A randomized trial. Aids, 2010; 24:77–83.
43.
So-NgernA, MontakantikulP, ManosuthiW: Clinically significant drug interaction among HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 2014; 45:1023–1031.
44.
WatersDD, HsuePY: Lipid abnormalities in persons living with HIV infection. Can J Cardiol, 2019; 35:249–259.
45.
HwangYC, JunJE, JeongIK, AhnKJ, ChungHY: Comparison of the efficacy of rosuvastatin monotherapy 20 mg with rosuvastatin 5 mg and ezetimibe 10 mg combination therapy on lipid parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab J, 2019; 43:582–589.
46.
HongSJ, JeongHS, AhnJC, et al.: A phase III, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, active comparator clinical trial to compare the efficacy and safety of combination therapy with ezetimibe and rosuvastatin versus rosuvastatin monotherapy in patients with hypercholesterolemia: I-ROSETTE (Ildong Rosuvastatin & Ezetimibe for Hypercholesterolemia) Randomized Controlled Trial. Clin Ther, 2018; 40:226–241.e4.
47.
SinghS, WilligJH, MugaveroMJ, et al.: Comparative effectiveness and toxicity of statins among HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis, 2011; 52:387–395.
48.
CalzaL, ManfrediR, ColangeliV, et al.: Two-year treatment with rosuvastatin reduces carotid intima-media thickness in HIV type 1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy with asymptomatic atherosclerosis and moderate cardiovascular risk. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 2013; 29:547–556.
49.
LeeH, ChoiJM, ChoJ-Y, KimT-E, LeeHJ, JungBH: Regulation of endogenic metabolites by rosuvastatin in hyperlipidemia patients: An integration of metabolomics and lipidomics. Chem Phys Lipids, 2018; 214:69–83.
50.
TrevillyanJ, DartA, CavassiniM, et al.: Impact of rosuvastatin on atherosclerotic progression in people with HIV at moderate cardiovascular risk: A multinational, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Int Aids Soc, 2019; 22:5.
51.
GervasoniC, RivaA, RizzardiniG, ClementiE, GalliM, CattaneoD: Potential association between rosuvastatin use and high atazanavir trough concentrations in ritonavir-treated HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther, 2015; 20:449–451.
52.
HilemanCO, LongeneckerCT, LabbatoD, KinleyB, McComseyGA: The effect of rosuvastatin on vascular disease differs by smoking status. Top Antivir Med, 2016; 24(E-1):279–280.
53.
CalzaL, MagistrelliE, ColangeliV, et al.: Substitution of nevirapine or raltegravir for protease inhibitor vs. rosuvastatin treatment for the management of dyslipidaemia in HIV-infected patients on stable antiretroviral therapy (Nevrast study). Infect Dis (Lond), 2017; 49:737–747.
54.
CalzaL, ColangeliV, MagistrelliE, et al.: Significant decrease in plasma levels of D-dimer, interleukin-8, and interleukin-12 after a 12-month treatment with rosuvastatin in HIV-infected patients under antiretroviral therapy. Aids Res Hum Retroviruses, 2017; 33:126–132.
55.
CalzaL, TrapaniF, BartolettiM, et al.: Statin therapy decreases serum levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and tumor necrosis factor-α in HIV-infected patients treated with ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors. HIV Clin Trials, 2012; 13:153–161.
56.
FunderburgNT, JiangY, DebanneSM, et al.: Rosuvastatin reduces vascular inflammation and T-cell and monocyte activation in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2015; 68:396–404.
57.
HigginsJP, AltmanDG, GøtzschePC, et al.: The Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized trials. BMJ, 2011; 343:d5928.
58.
WellsGA, SheaB, O'ConnellD, et al.: The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Non-Randomized Studies in Meta-Analyses, 2008. Available from: http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp, accessed April16, 2020.
59.
WanX, WangW, LiuJ, TongT: Estimating the sample mean and standard deviation from the sample size, median, range and/or interquartile range. BMC Med Res Methodol, 2014; 14:135.
HigginsJPT, ThompsonSG: Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med, 2002; 21:15395–15398.
62.
EggerM, Davey SmithG, SchneiderM, MinderC: Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 1997; 315:629–634.
63.
DuvalS, TweedieR: Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 2000; 56:455–463.
64.
MoherD, LiberatiA, TetzlaffJ, AltmanDG: Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med, 2009; 6:e1000097.
65.
CalzaL, VaninoE, SalvadoriC, et al.: Tenofovir/emtricitabine/efavirenz plus rosuvastatin decrease serum levels of inflammatory markers more than antiretroviral drugs alone in antiretroviral therapy-Naive HIV-infected patients. HIV Clin Trials, 2014; 15:1–13.
66.
CalzaL, ColangeliV, BorderiM, et al.: Rosuvastatin and atorvastatin preserve renal function in HIV-1-infected patients with chronic kidney disease and hyperlipidaemia. HIV Clin Trials 2018, 2018; 19:120–128.
67.
AslangulE, FellahiS, AssoumouLK, BastardJ-P, CapeauJ, CostagliolaD: High-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels fall during statin therapy in HIV-infected patients receiving ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors. Aids, 2011; 25:1128–1131.
68.
EckardAR, JiangY, DebanneSM, FunderburgNT, McComseyGA: Effect of 24 weeks of statin therapy on systemic and vascular inflammation in HIV-infected subjects receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis, 2014; 209:1156–1164.
69.
ZanettiHR, GonçalvesA, Paranhos LopesLT, et al.: Effects of exercise training and statin use in people living with HIV with dyslipidemia. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2019; 52:16–24.
70.
GrosserN, ErdmannK, HemmerleA, et al.: Rosuvastatin upregulates the antioxidant defense protein heme oxygenase-1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2004; 325:871–876.
71.
MayerC, GruberHJ, LandlEM, et al.: Rosuvastatin reduces interleukin-6-induced expression of C-reactive protein in human hepatocytes in a STAT3- and C/EBP-dependent fashion. Int J Clin Pharmacol Therap, 2007; 45:319–327.
72.
LongeneckerCT, SattarA, GilkesonR, McComseyGA: Rosuvastatin slows progression of subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with treated HIV infection. Aids, 2016; 30:2195–2203.
73.
MahalwarR, KhannaD: Pleiotropic antioxidant potential of rosuvastatin in preventing cardiovascular disorders. Eur J Pharmacol, 2013; 711:57–62.
74.
OttoA, FontaineJ, TschirhartE, FontaineD, BerkenboomG: Rosuvastatin treatment protects against nitrate-induced oxidative stress in eNOS knockout mice: Implication of the NAD(P)H oxidase pathway. Br J Pharmacol, 2006; 148:544–552.
75.
Gómez-GarcíaA, Martínez TorresG, Ortega-PierresLE, Rodríguez-AyalaE, Alvarez-AguilarC. [Rosuvastatin and metformin decrease inflammation and oxidative stress in patients with hypertension and dyslipidemia]. Rev Esp Cardiol, 2007; 60:1242–1249.
76.
NixonDE, BoschRJ, ChanES, et al.: Effects of atorvastatin on biomarkers of immune activation, inflammation, and lipids in virologically suppressed, human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected individuals with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <130 mg/dL (AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5275). J Clin Lipidol, 2017; 11:61–69.
77.
BedimoRJ, MarH, BoschRJ, et al.: Brief report: No evidence for an association between statin use and lower biomarkers of HIV persistence or immune activation/inflammation during effective ART. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2019; 82:e27–e31.
78.
BakerJV, Huppler HullsiekK, ProsserR, et al.: Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor as adjunct treatment for persons with HIV infection: A feasibility randomized trial. PLoS ONE, 2012; 7:e46894.
79.
SiednerMJ, KimJH, NakkuRS, et al.: Persistent immune activation and carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-infected ugandans receiving antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis, 2016; 213:370–378.
80.
BahramiH, BudoffM, HaberlenSA, et al.: Inflammatory markers associated with subclinical coronary artery disease: The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. J Am Heart Assoc, 2016; 5:e003371.
81.
Castillo-MancillaJR, MorrowM, BoumY, et al.: Brief report: Higher ART adherence is associated with lower systemic inflammation in treatment-Naive Ugandans who achieve virologic suppression. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2018; 77:507–513.
82.
ArmahKA, McGinnisK, BakerJ, et al.: HIV status, burden of comorbid disease, and biomarkers of inflammation, altered coagulation, and monocyte activation. Clin Infect Dis, 2012; 55:126–136.
83.
So-ArmahKA, TateJP, ChangCH, et al.: Do biomarkers of inflammation, monocyte activation, and altered coagulation explain excess mortality between HIV infected and uninfected people?. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr 1999, 2016; 72:206–213.
84.
BorgesAH, O'ConnorJL, PhillipsAN, et al.: Factors associated with plasma IL-6 levels during HIV infection. J Infect Dis, 2015; 212:585–595.
85.
KaplanRC, LandayAL, HodisHN, et al.: Potential cardiovascular disease risk markers among HIV-infected women initiating antiretroviral treatment. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2012; 60:359–368.
86.
MelvinAJ, WarshawM, CompagnucciA, et al.: Hepatic, renal, hematologic, and inflammatory markers in HIV-infected children on long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc, 2017; 6:e109–e115.
87.
HattabS, GuihotA, GuiguetM, et al.: Comparative impact of antiretroviral drugs on markers of inflammation and immune activation during the first two years of effective therapy for HIV-1 infection: An observational study. BMC Infect Dis, 2014; 14:122.
88.
DesvarieuxM, BoccaraF, MeynardJL, et al.: Infection duration and inflammatory imbalance are associated with atherosclerotic risk in HIV-infected never-smokers independent of antiretroviral therapy. Aids, 2013; 27:2603–2614.
89.
SeifertSM, Castillo-MancillaJR, ErlandsonKM, AndersonPL. Inflammation and pharmacokinetics: Potential implications for HIV-infection. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol, 2017; 13:641–650.
90.
PuertasMC, Gomez-MoraE, SantosJR, et al.: Impact of intensification with raltegravir on HIV-1-infected individuals receiving monotherapy with boosted PIs. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2018; 73:1940–1948.
91.
HsuePY, HuntPW, SchnellA, et al.: Role of viral replication, antiretroviral therapy, and immunodeficiency in HIV-associated atherosclerosis. Aids, 2009; 23:1059–1067.
92.
DrechslerHJ, CutrellJ, TebasP, BedimoR: Statins use is associated with greater CD4 gains in HIV-infected us veterans. Top Antivir Med, 2014; 22:136.
93.
GanesanA, Crum-CianfloneN, HigginsJ, et al.: High dose atorvastatin decreases cellular markers of immune activation without affecting HIV-1 RNA levels: Results of a double-blind randomized placebo controlled clinical trial. J Infect Dis, 2011; 203:756–764.
94.
YangY, JiaoX, LiL, et al.: Increased circulating angiopoietin-like protein 8 levels are associated with thoracic aortic dissection and higher inflammatory conditions. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther, 2020; 34:65–77.
95.
LippiG, BonfantiL, SaccentiC, CervellinG: Causes of elevated D-dimer in patients admitted to a large urban emergency department. Eur J Intern Med, 2014; 25:45–48.
96.
KarsyM, AzabMA, HarperJ, et al.: Evaluation of a D-dimer protocol for detection of venous thromboembolism. World Neurosurg, 2020; 133:e774–e783.
SahebkarA, SerbanC, MikhailidisDP, et al.: Association between statin use and plasma D-dimer levels. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Thromb Haemost, 2015; 114:546–557.
99.
AdamsNB, LutseyPL, FolsomAR, et al.: Statin therapy and levels of hemostatic factors in a healthy population: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. J Thrombis Haemost, 2013; 11:1078–1084.
100.
Schol-GelokS, van der HulleT, BiedermannJS, et al.: Clinical effects of antiplatelet drugs and statins on D-dimer levels. Eur J Clin Invest, 2018; 48:e12944.
101.
MitsiosJV, PapathanasiouAI, GoudevenosJA, TselepisAD: The antiplatelet and antithrombotic actions of statins. Curr Pharm Des, 2010; 16:3808–3814.
Schol-GelokS, MorelliF, ArendsLR, BoersmaE, KruipM, VersmissenJ: A revised systematic review and meta-analysis on the effect of statins on D-dimer levels. Eur J Clin Invest, 2019; 49:e13130.
104.
BiedermannJS, KruipM, van der MeerFJ, et al.: Rosuvastatin use improves measures of coagulation in patients with venous thrombosis. Eur Heart J, 2018; 39:1740–1747.
105.
O'BryanTA, AganBK, TracyRP, et al.: Brief report: Racial comparison of D-dimer levels in US Male Military Personnel before and after HIV infection and viral suppression. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2018; 77:502–506.
106.
TaylorBS, So-ArmahK, TateJP, et al.: HIV and obesity comorbidity increase interleukin 6 but not soluble CD14 or D-dimer. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2017; 75:500–508.
107.
CudahyPGT, WarrenJL, CohenT, WilsonD: Trends in C-reactive protein, D-dimer, and fibrinogen during therapy for HIV-associated multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2018; 99:1336–1341.
108.
FordES, GreenwaldJH, RichtermanAG, et al.: Traditional risk factors and D-dimer predict incident cardiovascular disease events in chronic HIV infection. Aids, 2010; 24:1509–1517.
109.
BakerJV, NeuhausJ, DuprezD, et al.: Changes in inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers: A randomized comparison of immediate versus deferred antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr, 2011; 56:36–43.
110.
ScherzerR, ShahSJ, SecemskyE, et al.: Association of biomarker clusters with cardiac phenotypes and mortality in patients with HIV infection. Circ Heart Fail, 2018; 11:e004312.
111.
FreibergMS, BebuI, TracyR, et al.: D-dimer levels before HIV seroconversion remain elevated even after viral suppression and are associated with an increased risk of non-AIDS events. PLoS One, 2016; 11:e0152588.
112.
BorgesAH, O'ConnorJL, PhillipsAN, et al.: Factors associated with D-dimer levels in HIV-infected individuals. PLoS One, 2014; 9:e90978.
113.
BastardJ-P, FellahiS, CouffignalC, et al.: Increased systemic immune activation and inflammatory profile of long-term HIV-infected ART-controlled patients is related to personal factors, but not to markers of HIV infection severity. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2015; 70:1816–1824.
114.
GrinspoonSK, FitchKV, OvertonET, et al.: Rationale and design of the Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV (REPRIEVE). Am Heart J, 2019; 212:23–35.
115.
HoffmannU, LuMT, OlalereD, et al.: Rationale and design of the Mechanistic Substudy of the Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV (REPRIEVE): Effects of pitavastatin on coronary artery disease and inflammatory biomarkers. Am Heart J, 2019; 212:1–12.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
