On 30 October 1905, the Lord Mayor of London blessed the inaugural meeting of a society created for the purpose of winning the British people to `the necessity of applying the methods of science to all branches of endeavour, and thus to further the progress and increase the welfare of the Empire'. Now nearly forgotten, the British Science Guild he opened that day was to be among the most visible `ginger groups' in British science during the first half of the century. Foreshadowing a world of parliamentary lobbies, public interest groups, and `think tanks', the Guild was created to `foster public appreciation of the role of science and the advantage of applying the methods of scientific enquiry, the study of cause and effect, in affairs of every kind'. For just twenty years, under the banner of `imperial efficiency', it campaigned for the application of scientific expertise to national and imperial policy, before it was ultimately forced to wind up its affairs, and combine with the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Its tempestuous history was not without achievements. Yet, those achievements were insufficient to change public opinion on the scale it attempted. Today, the history of the Guild holds important lessons for the `public understanding of science'. This essay reconstructs that history, and shows how the Guild's irenic vision of science blossomed, withered and failed. In retrospect, it may be argued, the Guild and its programme reflected the limited success won by the public advocacy of certain scientistic values, and the limits within which the British public was willing to accept those values as public authority.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
reported in Nature, 1905, 73, 10-13.
2.
MacLeod, R. , 1969, The social framework of Nature in its first fifty years. Nature, 224, 441-446.
3.
Turner, F. , 1980, Public science in Britain, 1880-1919. Isis, 71, 602.
4.
MacLeod, R. , 1993, Passages in imperial science: from Empire to Commonwealth. Journal of World History4(1), 2-29.
5.
and McGucken, W., 1984, Scientists, Society and State: The Social Relations of Science Movement in Great Britain, 1931-1947 (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press).
6.
See Pearson, K., 1984, The Grammar of Science (London).
7.
Werskey, P. G. , 1971, British scientists and `outsider' politics, 1931-45. Social Studies of Science, 1, 67-83.
8.
reported in Nature190573, 3.
9.
reported in Nature190573, 3.
10.
The first English edition appeared as Mahan, Captain A. T., 1890, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (London: Sampson, Low, Marston).
11.
For a history of invasion scares, see Clarke, I. F., 1966, Voices Prophesying War, 1763-1984 (London: Oxford University Press).
12.
See Jones, G., 1980, Social Darwinism and English Thought: The Interaction between Biological and Social Theory (Brighton: Harvester), especially Chap. 6.
13.
`Miles' [Sir Frederick Maurice], 1902, Where to get men. Contemporary Review, 81, 78-86.
14.
quoting Masterman, C. F. G., 1901, The Heart of the Empire (London), pp. 7-8.
15.
and his valuable supplement, 1980, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900-1914 (Leyden: Noordhoff International Publishing).
16.
see Carrington, C., 1970, Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work (London: Pelican), p. 381.
17.
see Shaw, G. B., 1900, Fabianism and the Empire (London: Constable), p. 98.
18.
See Rosebery, `Municipal and Social Reform', speech delivered in London, 21 March 1894, quoted in Freeden, M., 1978, The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford University Press), p. 37.
19.
See Matthew, H. C. G., 1973, The Liberal Imperialists: The Ideas and Politics of a Post-Gladstonian Elite (Oxford University Press).
20.
Quoted in Dyer, H., 1896, The future of politics. Westminster Review, 145, 5.
21.
Webb, S. , 1901, Lord Rosebery's escape from Houndsditch, Nineteenth Century and After, CCXCV, 374.
22.
See also Hamer, D. A., 1972, Liberal Politics in the Age of Gladstone and Rosebery: A Study in Leadership and Policy (Oxford University Press).
23.
Barker, E. , 1928, Political Thought in England, 1848-1914 (2nd edn) (London: Butterworth).
24.
In 1905, after the passage of the Education Act that bore his name, Balfour declaimed; `The existing educational system of this country is chaotic, is ineffectual, is utterly behind the age, makes us the laughing stock of every advanced nation in Europe and America, [and] puts us behind, not only our American cousins, but the German, and the French and the Italian'. The Times, 15 October 1905.
25.
R. Burdon, Viscount Haldane, Q.C. 1890, was Liberal MP for East Lothian, 1885-1911, Secretary of State for War, and responsible for army reform, 1905-1912; Chairman of the Royal Commission on University Education in London, 1909, and Lord Chancellor, 1924.
26.
Hall, A. R. , 1972, Science for Industry: A Short History of the Imperial College of Science and Technology and its Antecedents (London: Imperial College).
27.
Whitehead, A. N. , 1926, Science and the Modern World (Cambridge University Press).
28.
MacLeod R. , 1988, Government and Expertise: Specialists, Experts and Professionals, 1850-1919 (Cambridge University Press), Introduction.
29.
`Science and the scientific method can be applied, not to the discovery of a right end, but to a discovery of a right way of getting to any particular ends'. Webb, B., 1948, Our Partnership (London: Longmans), p. 211.
30.
Davidson, R. , 1985, Whitehall and the Labour Problem in Late-Victorian and Edwardian Britain (London: Croom Helm), p. 273.
31.
It would not be difficult to agree with Michael Freeden that the Liberal Imperialists, among whose aims was a `new Liberal ideology based on a constitutive policy of social reforms', demonstrated an unimaginative and conservative approach to social issues. Freeden, M., 1978, The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford University Press).
32.
The Times, January 1902, p.9.
33.
and his valuable supplement, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900-1914 (Leyden, 1976).
34.
Johnson, F. A. , 1960, Defence by Committee: The British C.I.D. (London: Oxford University Press), p. 55.
35.
Amery, L. S. , 1953, My Political Life, Vol I: England before the Storm, 1896-1914 (London: Hutchinson), p. 223.
36.
Wells, H. G. , 1911, The New Machiavelli (London: Heron Books), pp. 338-339, 352-353.
37.
Stead, A. , 1905, Great Japan: A Study of National Efficiency (London: John Lane).
38.
For the influence of T. H. Green and his critics, notably L. T. Hobhouse, see Morrow, J., 1982, British idealism, `Germany philosophy' and the First World War. Australian Journal of Politics and History, 28, 380-390.
39.
Turner, F. , 1980, Public science in Britain, 1880-1919. Isis, 71, 509.
40.
Lowe, R. A. , 1979, Eugenists, doctors and the quest for national efficiency: an educational crusade, 1900-1939. History of Education, 8, 293-306.
41.
MacLeod, R. , and MacLeod, K., 1976, The social relations of science and technology, 1914-1939. The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 5: The Twentieth Century, Part I, edited by C. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana), pp. 301-335.
42.
In the sense used by Marshall, T. H., 1965, Class Citizenship and Social Development (London: Hutchinson), pp. 284-287.
43.
also MacLeod, R., 1969, The genesis of Nature. Nature, 224, 423-440.
44.
Lockyer, T. M. , and Lockyer, W. L., 1928, Life and Work of Sir Norman Lockyer (London: Macmillan), p. 184.
45.
reprinted in Lockyer, N., 1906, Education and National Progress (London: Macmillan), pp. 182-184.
46.
Armytage, W. H. G. , 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work (London: Macmillan).
47.
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Southport, 1903, 73, Resolutions, cvi.
48.
Gregory's biographer says that the BA was not anxious `to embark on the task of applying scientific methods to public affairs', but offers no explanation for this policy. See Armytage, W. H. G., 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work (London: Macmillan).
49.
Private Secretary, Prince of Wales, to Lockyer, 25 February 1904. Information kindly supplied by Professor A. J. Meadows.
50.
Lockyer, T. M. , and Lockyer, W. L., 1928, Life and Work of Sir Norman Lockyer (London: Macmillan), p. 186.
51.
Nature, 1905, 73, 10-13. The wish was already father to the deed. In July 1904, Lockyer, still in his capacity as President of the BA, mobilized a deputation of chancellors, vice-chancellors and professors to A. J. Balfour, Prime Minister. Led by Joseph Chamberlain, speaking as Chancellor of Birmingham University, and Sir William Ramsay, of University College, the deputation asked the government to increase the universities' grant from £26,000 to £100,000. The appeal succeeded. Balfour agreed to double the endowment. Lockyer decided to continue such deputations, but on a firm institutional basis.
52.
reported in Nature, 1905, 73, 10-13.
53.
reported in Nature, 1905, 73, 10-13.
54.
The Guild's first Annual Report listed the Executive Committee: President: Haldane; Treasurer: Lord Avebury; Hon. Assistant Treasurer: Lady Lockyer. The Trustees were Sir James Blyth and C. W. (later Sir Charles) Macara, and the Hon. Secretary was Sir Alexander Pedler FRS. Vice Presidents included Professor Joseph Larmor (Secretary of the Royal Society), the Lord Bishop of Ripon, and Sir John Wolfe-Barry FRS. Sir Norman Lockyer was the Chairman of Committees, assisted by Sir William Abney FRS; Sir Lauder Bruton FRS; the Hon. Sir John Cockburn; and Sir Gilbert Parker. Original committee members included: Sir Hugh Bell, George Beilby FRS, of the NPL; Rt. Hon. Thomas Burt MP; Sir Dugald Clerk; Captain Creak RN FRS; Dr Frances Elgar FRS; F. A. Hadfield; Sir William Mather; Maj. Gen. Sir Frederick Maurcie KCB; Prof. John Perry FRS; Sir William Ramsey KCB, FRS; F. Verney MP; and Sir Harry Truman Wood, of the Royal Society of Arts—altogether, twelve FRSs, seven knights, and four Members of Parliament.
55.
At Lockyer's insistence, the annual subscription of the Guild was fixed at only 2/6d. Lubbock felt this was too low if the object was to build an influential body, and was initially reluctant to join. Lockyer overcame his objections and persuaded him to become Honorary Treasurer. (I owe this information to the courtesy of Professor A. J. Meadows).
56.
Scally, R. J. , 1975, The Origins of the Lloyd George Coalition: the Politics of Social Imperialism, 1900-1918 (Princeton University Press).
57.
Second Annual Report, BSG, 1908, Haldane, p.7; Bousfield, p.9.
58.
First Annual Report, BSG, 1907, p.9.
59.
For this period, see Greenleaf, W. H., 1983, The British Political Tradition: the Rise of Collectivism (London: Methuen), vol I, p. 283.
60.
Nature, 72 (1904), 586.
61.
Contemporary usage suggests that the term `League' (as in the Primrose League and the National Anti-Vaccination League) had directly political connotations, and that for this reason, if no other, it may have been avoided. For a contemporary example of the common mode, see Collette, C., 1989, For Labour and for Women: the Women's Labour League, 1908-1918 (Manchester University Press). It seems a moot point.
62.
First Annual Report, BSG, 1907, p.4.
63.
First Annual Report, BSG, 1907, p.5.
64.
The organisation of anthropometric investigation in the British Isles—report of the committee. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1913, 83, p. 230.
65.
Third Annual Report, BSG, 1909, p.5.
66.
These included the recommendations (1) that no local authority or other body should grant exemption from school attendance to children under fourteen; (2) that attendance should be compulsory at Day or Evening Continuation Schools for two-to-four hours a week for two years; (3) that Craft Schools and secondary schools be provided for children aged fourteen to sixteen; (4) that University preliminary exams should be abolished, leaving the matriculation examination the only standard; and (5) that school and teacher reports should supercede the examination system. Third Annual Report, BSG, 1909.
67.
Fourth Annual Report, BSG, 1910, p.8, Appendix D.
68.
For a history of the now late-lamented UGC, see Berdahl, R. O., 1959, British Universities and the State (Berkeley, CA: California University Press).
69.
This provided an early occasion for Hall to raise issues which were later widely canvassed in his edited volume on The Frustration of Science (London: Allen and Unwin, 1936).
70.
Agricultural Committee, Memorial to the Prime Minister, reprinted in Fifth Annual Report, BSG, 1911, Appendix B, p.46.
71.
Sixth Annual Report, BSG, 1912, p.6. In 1920, the research portfolio of the Development Commission was transferred to the Agricultural Research Council.
72.
`Radium, in its application to disease, is still but little understood, and until more experimental, pathological and clinical data have been collected to show the effect of this agent upon not only the diseased but also the healthy tissues of the body, dogmatic statements as to its therapeutic value cannot be made.' Third Annual Report, BSG, 1909, p.25.
73.
Third Annual Report, BSG, 1909, p.9.
74.
Fourth Annual Report, BSG, 1910, p.13.
75.
Fifth Annual Report, BSG, 1911, p.12.
76.
Second Annual Report, BSG, 1908, p.14.
77.
Eighth Annual Report, BSG, 1914, p.12.
78.
Second Annual Report, BSG, 1908, Appendix C.
79.
Jones, G. , 1980, Social Darwinism and English Thought: the Interaction between Biological and Social Theory (Brighton: Harvester), especially Chap.6.
80.
for the UK, see MacKenzie, D., 1976, Eugenics in Britain. Social Studies of Science, 6, 499-532.
81.
Bacchi, C. , 1980, Evolution, eugenics and women: the impact of scientific theories on attitudes towards women, 1870-1920. Women, Class and History: Feminist Perspectives on Australia, 1788-1978, edited by E. Windschuttle (Sydney), pp. 132-156.
82.
Seventh Annual Report, BSG, 1913, p.9.
83.
Sixth Annual Report, BSG, 1912, p.9. For information on 26 members of the Canadian Committee, I am indebted to Professor John Robson of the University of Toronto, and to Dr Ramsay Cook, General Editor of the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, who kindly placed unpublished files at my disposal.
84.
Fourth Annual Report, BSG, 1910, p.3.
85.
Kerr was a distinguished science administrator and teacher, and included W. H. (Lord) Florey and (Sir) Mark Oliphant among his pupils.
86.
Tomlin, S. G. , 1983, Sir Grant Kerr (1878-1967). Australian Dictionary of Biography, 9, 77-79.
87.
Annual Report, BSG, 1924-25, p.4. But the Branch was to live on, in the form of its Fauna of South Australia Handbooks Committee, which continued to represent the `branch' after 1924, and long after the demise of the BSG itself. In 1967, the Committee was affiliated with the South Australian Museum, where it is sponsored by Government to publish books dealing with Australian flora and fauna. See Mortlock Library (Adelaide), SRG 28, British Science Guild, South Australian Branch. I am indebted to Mrs Patricia Thomas and Dr Jennifer Barker for their help in locating information about this Branch.
88.
Armytage, W. H. G. , 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work (London: Macmillan), p. 449.
89.
Cf. [J. N. Lockyer], The War—and after. Nature, 10 September 1914, 94, 29-30.
90.
Cf. [J. H. Reynolds], Research in industry and the future of education. Nature, 29 June 1916, 97, 357-358.
91.
Armytage, W. H. G. , 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work (London): Macmillan), p. 68.
92.
Quoted in Hartley, H., 1953-4, The life and times of Sir Richard Gregory, Bt., FRS, 1864-1952. Advancement of Science, 10, 283.
93.
See MacLeod, R., and MacLeod, E. K., 1975, War and economic development: government and the optical industry in Britain, 1914-1918. War and Economic Development: Essays in Honour of David Joslin, edited by J. Winter (Cambridge University Press), pp. 165-204.
94.
Sales of German scientific instruments trebled between 1895 and 1905; in 1909, German exports were worth some £2 million and imports were negligible. The annual value of German exports in scientific instruments was about equal to the entire British manufacture.
95.
Stokes, G., 1874, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Belfast, 44.
96.
London County Council , 1911, Report of the Education Officer of the LCC to the Education Committee of the Council, 23 February.
See Public Record Office (Kew), DSIR 17/54 for the decision to set up a department of technical optics at Imperial College.
100.
Checkland, S. , 1983, British Public Policy, 1776-1939: an Economic, Social and Political Perspective (Cambridge University Press), p. 261.
101.
See Turner, J., 1984, The politics of organized business in the First World War. Businessmen and Politics: Studies of Business Activity in British Politics, 1900-1945 (London: Heinemann), p. 34.
102.
For a description of Curzon's Board, see MacLeod, R., 1975, Scientific advice for British India: imperial perceptions and administrative goals, 1898-1923. Modern Asian Studies, 9, 343-384.
103.
This idea found more perfect expression in Balfour's creation of the Committee of Civil Research in 1925. See MacLeod, R., and Andrews, E. K., 1969, The Committee of Civil Research: scientific advice for economic development, 1925-1930. Minerva, VII, 680-705.
104.
For details of Britain's scientific mobilization, see MacLeod, R., 1993, The chemists go to war: the mobilisation of civilian chemists and the British war effort, 1914-1918. Annals of Science50, 455-481.
105.
PRO Ed 24/158: Proposals for a National Scheme of Advanced Instruction and Research in Science, Technology and Commerce, April, 1915.
106.
The organization of science. Tenth Annual Report, BSG, 1916.
107.
Ramsay, W. , 1915, Science and the State. Nature, 95, 309-311.
108.
Poulton, E. B. , 1916, Science and War, Romanes Lecture (Oxford University Press).
109.
on imperial developments, see MacLeod, R., 1988, The Commonwealth of Science: ANZAAS and the Scientific Enterprise in Australasia, 1888-1988 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press).
110.
Pattison, M. , 1983, Scientists, inventors and the military in Britain, 1915-19: the Munitions Inventions Department. Social Studies of Science, 13, 521-568.
111.
First Report of the Advisory Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for 1915-1916 (London, 1916), p.20.
112.
Tenth Annual Report, BSG, 1916. Appendix: Promotion of Scientific Research and Higher Education, p.22.
113.
See [R. A. Gregory], The federation of science. Nature, 13 May 1920, 105, 317.
114.
Sir Dugald Clerk, Sir Robert Hadfield, Mr. A. D. Hall, Sir Alfred Keogh, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor Arthur Schuster, and Lord Sydenham.
115.
Eleventh Annual Report, BSG, 1917, p.1.
116.
See BSG Journal, July 1918, pp.30-33.
117.
Eleventh Annual Report, BSG, 1917, p.65.
118.
Armytage, W. H. G. , 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work(London): Macmillan), p. 78.
119.
Annual Report, BSG, 1919, pp.15-17.
120.
BSG Journal, 15 July 1919.
121.
Journal of the BSG, August 1925, 20, 31.
122.
MacLeod, R. , and MacLeod, K., 1976, The social relations of science and technology, 1914-1939. The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 5: The Twentieth Century, Part I, edited by C. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana), pp. 301-335.
123.
MacLeod, R. , and MacLeod, K., 1979, The contradictions of professionalism: scientists, trade unionism and the First World War, Social Studies of Science, 9, 1-32.
124.
Fourteenth Annual Report, BSG, 1919-20, p.7.
125.
Sir William Mather (1838-1920), industrialist (founder of the firm of Mather and Platt). In 1881 he was appointed Special Commissioner to the Royal Commission on Technical Education, responsible for investigating technical education in the United States, Europe and Russia. In 1895 he founded the Association of Technical Institutions and became its first President. At the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908, he organized an exhibition on education in the United Kingdom, and established nursery schools and teacher training colleges. As President of the BSG from 1912 to 1917, he was committed to its goals—particularly the right relationship between employer and employed. `In the death of Sir William Mather the nation has lost a rare type of man....' Fourteenth Annual Report, BSG, 1919-20, p.37. See also Who Was Who, II, 713.
126.
BSG Journal, November 1920, p.33.
127.
Soddy, F. , 1920, Nature, 106, 112.
128.
Science and social problems . Nature, 28 October 1933, 132, 654.
129.
BSG Journal, June 1921, p.36.
130.
Armytage, W. H. G. , 1957, Sir Richard Gregory: His Life and Work (London): Macmillan), p. 87.
131.
Reprinted in BSG Journal, October 1921, p.56.
132.
Robinson, J. J., 1922, 1922 and the future of the Guild. Sixteenth Annual Report, BSG, p.67.
133.
Commander Louis Bernacchi (1876-1942), OBE, FRGS, physicist, was born in Tasmania, and served on Captain Scott's Southern Cross Antarctic Expedition in 1898, and on Scott's National Antarctic Expedition in 1901-1904. Following these explorations, he travelled in the Amazon and in Africa. He settled afterward in England, where he stood as a Liberal candidate for Widnes in the 1910 General Election. On the outbreak of war, he joined the Royal Navy's anti-submarine division patrolling the North Sea. Besides his work for the Guild, he served on membership appeals for the Association of Scientific Workers and the Royal Geographical Society. Who Was Who, IV: pp.92-93.
134.
Reprinted in BSG Journal, February 1924, pp.29-30.
135.
The Times, 24 May 1923.
136.
See BSG Journal, February 24, p.2-3.
137.
BSG Journal, June 1924, p.9.
138.
BSG Journal, April 1925, 19, p.19.
139.
BSG Journal, March 1926, p.59.
140.
BSG Journal, August 1925, 20, p.64.
141.
Science and the Empire . Nature, 16 December 1922, 110, 797.
142.
Reprinted in the BSG Journal, August 1925, 20, pp.10-11.
143.
see also Church, A., 1927, East Africa: A New Dominion. A Crucial Experiment in Tropical Development and its Significance to the British Empire (London: Wetherby).
144.
MacLeod, R. , and Andrews, E. K., 1970, The origins of the DSIR: reflections on ideas and men. Public Administration, 48, 23-48.
145.
On 4 July, Nature described the new committee as a mixed blessing, similar to the Committee of Imperial Defence—where the PM was permanent Chairman—but with the disability of being an advisory body with no budget. The Guild commented: `It cannot be too strongly urged that the analogy between the Research and the Defence Committee has been carried too far....The permanent administrative officers in charge of departments are those to whom reference is made and they determine whose and what advice is to be followed....For the moment it appears to us that the administration has triumphed not only at the expense of the scientific worker but also at that of the Empire as a whole'. Journal of the BSG, August 1925, p.50.
146.
Annual Report, BSG, 1929-30, Council of Management, p.4.
147.
Annual Report, BSG, 1925-26, Report on `Scientific Research Workers and Industry'.
148.
In 1925 and 1926, the Guild campaigned for the appointment of a scientist as Controller of the Patent Office. A memorial was sent to the President of the Board of Trade in July 1925, signed by forty-eight members of the Guild, including fifteen FRS's. The Journal for March 1926 rejoiced that `for the first time a Scientific Controller has been appointed...Mr W. S. Jarrent'.
149.
BSG Journal, March 1926, p.59.
150.
Annual Report, BSG, 1927-28, p.10.
151.
Reprinted in Annual Report, BSG, 1929-30, Council of Management, p.9.
152.
Annual Report, BSG, 1931-32, Council of Management, p.5.
153.
`A Royal Commission that contained no-one manifestly in touch with the scientific work and thought has reported. It should be followed—in view of the nature of its Report—by another Committee of Commission of Inquiry into the Civil Service....' Annual Report, BSG, 1931-32. Council of Management, p.5.
154.
Perkin, H. J. , 1969, Key Profession: The History of the Association of University Teachers (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul).
155.
Major Archibald Church (1886-1954), MC, DSO, Gen. Sec., Association of Scientific Workers, 1920-31; Gen. Sec., BSG, 1931-33, member of East Africa parliamentary enquiry, 1924; Principal Parliamentary Secretary to President of the Board of Trade, then to Secretary of State for War, in the first Labour Government 1929-31. Who Was Who, V, 210
156.
These included A. E. L. Charlton, CBE: Sir Stafford Cripps KC: Sir Philip Dawson: Lt. Col. F. E. Fremantle OBE; Austin Hopkinson; Sir Murdoch MacDonald; Captain Harold Macmillan; and Sir Douglas Newton.
157.
See Walkland, S. A., 1963-4, Science and Parliament: the origins and influence of the Parliamentary and Scientific Committee. Parliamentary Affairs, 17, 308-320. Organizations supporting the PSC included the BSG, the AscW, the Pharmaceutical Society, the Institute of Physics, the Institution of Professional Civil Servants, and the Society of Engineers.
158.
See Powell, C., and Butler, A., 1980, The Parliamentary and Scientific Committee: the First Fifty Years (London: Croom Helm).
159.
Werskey, P. G. , 1971, British scientists and `outsider' politics, 1931-45. Social Studies of Science, 1, 72.
160.
Collins, P., 1978, The British Association for the Advancement of Science and public attitudes to science, 1919-1945. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Leeds.
161.
For a detailed account of relations between the BSG and the BA during the 1930s, see Collins, P., 1978, The British Association for the Advancement of Science and Public Attitudes to Science, 1919-1945. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Leeds, Chap. VI.
162.
[H. W. Stone], Science in Parliament. Nature, 30 December 1933, 132, 981-983.
163.
Annual Report, BSG, 1935-36, Council of Management, p.14.
164.
cited in Collins, P., 1978, The British Association for the Advancement of Science and public attitudes to science, 1919-1945. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Leeds.
165.
Werskey, P. G. , 1971, British scientists and `outsider' politics, 1931-45. Social Studies of Science, 1, 67-83.
166.
Turner, F. , 1980, Public science in Britain, 1880-1919. Isis, 71, 602-603.
167.
See MacLeod, R., and MacLeod, K., 1976, The social relations of science and technology, 1914-1939. The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 5: The Twentieth Century, Part I, edited by C. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana), pp. 301-335.
