There are rich deposits of rare earth elements (REE) in the Murmansk region, Russia (approximately 14 194 kt of REE2O3). At the moment only one of REE deposits are being extracted and processed, the Lovozero Loparite deposit. The main purpose of this article is to estimate the expected value of existing REE resources in the Murmansk region and to make an overview on actual technologies for the extraction and processing of REE from ore minerals. Based on these data, the authors propose a direction for the development of REE industry in the region, namely extraction of REE from minerals already mined (apatite of the Khibiny deposits and baddeleyite of the Kovdor deposit); optimisation or development of mineral processing technologies of eudialyte (the Lovozero Eudialyte deposit) and perovskite (the Afrikanda deposit); carrying out exploration works at the Keivy Zr-REE ore occurrences and developing processing and technologies for these ores.
AfanasyevBV.2011. Mineral resources of alkaline-ultrabasic massifs of the Kola Peninsula (in Russian). Saint-Petersburg: Roza VetrovSage UK: London, England.
2.
AlyMI, MasryBA, GasserMS, KhalifaNA, DaoudJA.2016. Extraction of Ce (IV), Yb (III) and Y(III) and recovery of some rare earth elements from Egyptian monazite using CYANEX 923 in kerosene.Int J Miner Process. 153:71–79. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2016.06.001.
3.
Arcmineral.2022. Arcmineral Group. http://arcmineral.ru/. Accessed 21 November 2022.
4.
BalaganskyVV, BasalaevAA, BelyaevOA, PozhilenkoVI, RadchenkoAT, RadchenkoMK.1996. Geological map of the Kola Region, scale 1:500 000. Apatity: Geological Institue of Kola Science Centre RASSage UK: London, England.
5.
BalaramV.2019. Rare earth elements: a review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact.Geoscience Frontiers. 10(4):1285–1303. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005.
6.
BalinskiA, AtanasovaP, WicheO, KellyN, ReuterMA, ScharfC.2019a. Recovery of REEs, Zr(+Hf), Mn and Nb by H2SO4 leaching of eudialyte concentrate.Hydrometallurgy. 186(September 2018):176–186. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.04.007.
7.
BalinskiA, AtanasovaP, WicheO, KellyN, ReuterMA, ScharfC.2019b. Selective leaching of rare earth elements (Rees) from eudialyte concentrate after sulfation and thermal decomposition of non-ree sulfates.Minerals. 9(9):522. doi:10.3390/min9090522
8.
BalinskiA, WicheO, KellyN, ReuterMA, ScharfC.2020. Separation of rare earth elements from contaminants and valuable components by in-situ precipitation during the hydrometallurgical processing of eudialyte concentrate.Hydrometallurgy. 194(April):105345. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2020.105345.
BelovaVV.2017. Development of solvent extraction methods for recovering rare earth metals.Theor Found Chem Eng. 51(4):599–609. doi:10.1134/S004057951605002X.
11.
BoraiEH, El-GhanyMSA, AhmedIM, HamedM, El-DinAMS, AlyHF.2016. Modified acidic leaching for selective separation of thorium, phosphate and rare earth concentrates from Egyptian crude monazite.Int J Miner Process. 149:34–41. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2016.02.003.
12.
BrissonVL, ZhuangWQ, Alvarez-CohenL.2016. Bioleaching of rare earth elements from monazite sand.Biotechnol Bioeng. 113(2):339–348. doi:10.1002/bit.25823.
13.
BulatovicS, WyslouzilDM.1999. Process development for treatment of complex perovskite, ilmenite and rutile ores.Miner Eng. 12(12):1407–1417.
14.
CampbellGA.2014. Rare earth metals: a strategic concern.Miner Econom. 27(1):21–31. doi:10.1007/s13563-014-0043-y.
15.
ChakhmouradianAR, SmithMP, KynickyJ.2015. From ‘strategic’ tungsten to ‘green’ neodymium: a century of critical metals at a glance.Ore Geol Rev. 64:455–458. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.06.008.
ChakhmouradianAR, ZaitsevAN.2012. Rare earth mineralization in igneous rocks: sources and processes.Elements. 8(5):347–353. doi:10.2113/gselements.8.5.347.
18.
ChukhinaT. S. (1963). Report on revision survey of rare earths and rare metals, carried out in 1962 in the north-western Keivy area, the Lovozero district of the Murmansk Region (in Russian). ApatitySage UK: London, England.
19.
DavrisP, StopicS, BalomenosE, PaniasD, PaspaliarisI, FriedrichB.2017. Leaching of rare earth elements from eudialyte concentrate by suppressing silica gel formation.Miner Eng. 108:115–122. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2016.12.011.
20.
de BoerMA, LammertsmaK.2013. Scarcity of rare earth elements.ChemSusChem. 6(11):2045–2055. doi:10.1002/cssc.201200794.
21.
DuX, GraedelTE.2011. Global in-use stocks of the rare earth elements: a first estimate.Environ Sci Technol. 45(9):4096–4101. doi:10.1021/es102836s.
22.
EllefmoSL, AaslyK, LangA, VezhapparambuVS, SilvaCAM.2019. Geometallurgical concepts used in industrial mineral production.Econ Geol. 114(8):1543–1554. doi:10.5382/econgeo.4685.
23.
FolinsbeeLJ.1993. Human health effects of air pollution.Environ Health Perspect. 100:45–56. doi:10.1289/ehp.9310045.
24.
FrietschR, PerdahlJ-A.1995. Rare earth elements in apatite and magnetite in Kiruna-type iron ores and some other iron ore types.Ore Geol Rev. 9(6):489–510.
25.
GerasimovaL, NikolaevA, MaslovaM, ShchukinaE, SamburovG, YakovenchukV, IvanyukG.2018. Titanite ores of the khibiny apatite-nepheline-deposits: selective mining, processing and application for titanosilicate synthesis.Minerals. 8(10):446. doi:10.3390/min8100446.
26.
HatchGP.2012. Dynamics in the global market for rare earths.Elements. 8(5):341–346. doi:10.2113/gselements.8.5.341.
IhlenPM, SchiellerupH, GautnebH, SkårØ. 2014. Characterization of apatite resources in Norway and their REE potential – a review.Ore Geol Rev. 58:126–147. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.11.003.
29.
IlankoonIMSK, DushyanthaNP, MancheriN, EdirisinghePM, NeethlingSJ, RatnayakeNP, 2022. Constraints to rare earth elements supply diversification: evidence from an industry survey.J Cleaner Prod. 331(November 2021):129932. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129932
30.
JowittSM.2022. Mineral economics of the rare-earth elements.MRS Bull. 47(3):276–282. doi:10.1557/s43577-022-00289-3.
KalashnikovAO, KonoplevaNG, PakhomovskyYA, IvanyukGY.2016. Rare earth deposits of the Murmansk Region, Russia – a review.Econ Geol. 111(7):1529–1559. doi:10.2113/econgeo.111.7.1529.
33.
KalashnikovAO, YakovenchukVN, PakhomovskyYA, BazaiAV, SokharevVA, KonoplevaNG, 2016. Scandium of the Kovdor baddeleyite–apatite–magnetite deposit (Murmansk Region, Russia): mineralogy, spatial distribution, and potential resource.Ore Geol Rev. 72:532–537. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.08.017.
34.
KimW, BaeI, ChaeS, ShinH.2009. Mechanochemical decomposition of monazite to assist the extraction of rare earth elements.J Alloys Compd. 486(1–2):610–614. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.07.015.
KrysenkoGF, EpovDG, MedkovMA, SitnikPV, AvramenkoVA.2018. Extraction of rare-earth elements in hydrofluoride decomposition of loparite concentrate.Russ J Appl Chem. 91(10):1665–1670. doi:10.1134/S1070427218100142.
39.
KrysenkoGF, EpovDG, MedkovMA, SitnikPV, NikolaevAI.2016. Processing of perovskite concentrate by ammonium hydrodifluoride.Theor Found Chem Eng. 50(4):588–592. doi:10.1134/S0040579516040163.
40.
KrysenkoGF, EpovDG, SitnikPV, MedkovMA, NikolaevAI.2016. REE formation in hydrodifluoride processing of the perovskite concentrate.Theor Found Chem Eng. 50(5):867–871. doi:10.1134/S0040579516050122.
41.
LazoDE, DyerLG, AlorroRD, BrownerR.2017. Treatment of monazite by organic acids I: solution conversion of rare earths.Hydrometallurgy. 174(October):202–209. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2017.10.003.
42.
LebedevVN.2003. Sulfuric acid technology for processing of Eudialyte concentrate.Russ J Appl Chem. 76(10):1559–1563. doi:10.1023/B:RJAC.0000015712.10513.94.
43.
LebedevVN.2007. Extraction and refining of scandium upon the processing of Baddeleyite concentrates.Theor Found Chem Eng. 41(5):718–722. doi:10.1134/S0040579507050466.
44.
LebedevVN, LokshinEP.2009. Isolation of niobium and tantalum from tails of Baddeleyite concentrate.Theor Found Chem Eng. 43(5):822–825. doi:10.1134/S0040579509050364.
45.
LebedevVN, LokshinEP, Mel'nikNA, ShchurTE, PopovaLA.2004. Possibility of integrated processing of the Baddeleyite concentrate.Russ J Appl Chem. 77(5):708–710. doi:10.1023/B:RJAC.0000038795.92753.20.
46.
LebedevVN, RudenkoAV.2005. Processing of rare-earth elements from loparite.Radiochemistry. 47(1):80–83. doi:10.1007/s11137-005-0052-3.
47.
LokshinEP, TareevaOA.2008. Specific features of sulfuric acid leaching-out of lanthanides from phosphohemihydrate.Russ J Appl Chem. 81(1):8–13. doi:10.1007/s11167-008-1002-6.
48.
LokshinEP, TareevaOA.2020. Decomposition of an Eudialyte concentrate with nitric acid by sorption conversion.Russ Metall (Met). 2020(9):964–970. doi:10.1134/S0036029520090086.
49.
LokshinEP, TareevaOA, ElizarovaIR.2013. On integrated processing of phosphogypsum.Russ J Appl Chem. 86(4):463–468. doi:10.1134/S1070427213040010.
50.
LokshinEP, TareevaOA, ElizarovaIR.2016. New approach to processing of the apatite concentrate.Russ J Appl Chem. 89(7):1082–1088. doi:10.1134/S1070427216070065.
51.
LongKR, GosenBSV, FoleyNK, CordierD.2012. The principal rare earth elements deposits of the United States: a summary of domestic deposits and a global perspective. In: Sinding-LarsenR., WellmerF.-W., editors. Non-renewable resource issues: geoscientific and societal challenges. Vol. 2012. Dordrecht: Springer NetherlandsSage UK: London, England; p. 131–155. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8679-2_7
52.
LopesFWB, de SouzaCP, de MoraisAMV, DallasJP, GavarriJr.2009. Determination of RE2Ce2O7 pyrochlore phases from monazite-allanite ores.Hydrometallurgy. 97(3–4):167–172. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2009.02.007.
53.
Ma Y, Stopic S, Huang Z, Friedrich B. 2019. Selective recovery and separation of Zr and Hf from sulfuric acid leach solution using anion exchange resin. Hydrometallurgy, 189(June), 105143. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.105143
54.
MaiorovVG, NikolaevAI, KopkovVK, SafonovaLA, KorotkovaGV.2004. Recovery of Thorium(IV) in utilization of solutions formed in sulfuric acid breakdown of perovskite.Russ J Appl Chem. 77(5):711–715. doi:10.1023/B:RJAC.0000038796.49484.6e.
55.
MaiorovVG, NikolaevAI, Zil'bermanBY, ShcherbakovVM.2007. Utilization of waste solutions in perovskite technology.Russ J Appl Chem. 80(6):874–878. doi:10.1134/S1070427207060055.
56.
MarianoAN, MarianoA.2012. Rare earth mining and exploration in North America.Elements. 8(5):369–376. doi:10.2113/gselements.8.5.369.
57.
MelentyevGB.2013. Rare-earth resources of innovative development of the Russian productions: the condition and prospects (in Russian with English abstract).Oboronnyi kompleks - nauchno-tehnicheskomu progressu Rossii. 119:82–94.
58.
MikhailovaJA, PakhomovskyYA, IvanyukGY, BazaiAV, YakovenchukVN, ElizarovaIR, KalashnikovAO.2017. REE mineralogy and geochemistry of the Western Keivy peralkaline granite massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia.Ore Geol Rev. 82:181–197. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.11.006.
59.
OgataT, NaritaH, TanakaM, HoshinoM, KonY, WatanabeY.2016. Selective recovery of heavy rare earth elements from apatite with an adsorbent bearing immobilized tridentate amido ligands.Sep Purif Technol. 159:157–160. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2016.01.008.
60.
OmodaraL, PitkäahoS, TurpeinenEM, SaavalainenP, OravisjärviK, KeiskiRL.2019. Recycling and substitution of light rare earth elements, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium from end-of-life applications – a review.J Cleaner Prod. 236:117573. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.07.048
61.
OsmakAV, NikolaevaII, GorshkovaNV.2016. Method for processing rare earth elements concentrate. Patent RU 2595672 C1. Russia.
62.
PasternokN.2000. Record of the Sakharyok occurrence (in Russian). Apatity.
63.
PodturkinYA, DixonR.2010. Guidelines on Alignment of Russian minerals reporting standards and the CRIRSCO Template (Руководство по гармонизации стандартов отчетности России и CRIRSCO). Moscow. http://www.crirsco.com/guidelines_consultation_draft20100312.pdf.
SamonovAE.2008. Prospects of development of manufacture and consumption of rare-earth production in Russia.Annual Meeting of Russian Mineralogical Society; p. 134–138. http://www.minsoc.ru/FilesBase/2008-3-39-0.pdf
66.
SarapääO, Al AniT, LahtiSI, LauriLS, SaralaP, TorppaA, KontinenA.2013. Rare earth exploration potential in Finland.J Geochem Explor. 133:25–41. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2013.05.003.
67.
SilinI, GürselD, BüchterC, WeitkämperL, WotrubaH.2022. Recovery of catapleiite and eudialyte from non-magnetic fraction of eudialyte ore processing of Norra Kärr deposit.Minerals. 12:1. doi:10.3390/min12010019.
SoltaniF, AbdollahyM, KoleiniSMJ, MoradkhaniD.2017. Selection of an appropriate leaching method for light REEs from esfordi flotation concentrate based on mineral characterization.J South Afr Inst Min Metall. 117(5):443–450. doi:10.17159/2411-9717/2017/v117n5a6.
70.
SprecherB, DaigoI, MurakamiS, KleijnR, VosM, KramerGJ.2015. Framework for resilience in material supply chains, with a case study from the 2010 rare earth crisis.Environ Sci Technol. 49(11):6740–6750. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00206.
71.
StarkT, SilinI, WotrubaH.2017. Mineral processing of eudialyte Ore from Norra Kärr.J Sustain Metall. 3(1):32–38. doi:10.1007/s40831-016-0073-5.
72.
StepanovSI, HoaNTY, BoyarintsevaEV, BoyarintsevAV, KostikovaGV, TsivadzeAY.2022. Separation of rare-earth elements from nitrate solutions by solvent extraction using mixtures of Methyltri-n-octylammonium Nitrate and Tri-n-butyl Phosphate.Molecules. 27(2):557. doi:10.3390/molecules27020557
73.
TeixeiraLAV, SilvaRG, AvelarA, MajusteD, CiminelliVST.2019. Selective extraction of rare earth elements from Monazite Ores with high Iron content.Min Metall Explor. 36(1):235–244. doi:10.1007/s42461-018-0035-5.
USGS.2022. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022. Reston (VA): National Minerals Information Center. 202 p. doi:10.5066/P9KKMCP4.
76.
VerbaanN, JohnsonM, GrammatikopoulosT, LarochelleE, HonanS, SmithK, SixberryR.2018. A process flowsheet for the extraction of niobium, titanium, and scandium from Niocorp's Elk Creek Deposit. In: Davis B, Moats M, Wang S, Gregurek D, Kapusta J, Battle T, Schlesinger M, Flores G, Jak E, Goodall G, et al., editors. Extraction 2018. Cham: SpringerSage UK: London, England; p. 2523–2539. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95022-8_213
77.
VoßenkaulD, BirichA, MüllerN, StoltzN, FriedrichB.2017. Hydrometallurgical processing of Eudialyte bearing concentrates to recover rare earth elements via low-temperature dry digestion to prevent the silica gel formation.J Sustain Metall. 3(1):79–89. doi:10.1007/s40831-016-0084-2.
78.
WengZ, JowittSM, MuddGM, HaqueN.2015. A detailed assessment of global rare earth element resources: opportunities and challenges.Econ Geol. 110(8):1925–1952. doi:10.2113/econgeo.110.8.1925.
79.
XuY, LiuH, MengZ, CuiJ, ZhaoW, LiL.2012. Decomposition of bastnasite and monazite mixed rare earth minerals calcined by alkali liquid.J Rare Earths. 30(2):155–158. doi:10.1016/S1002-0721(12)60014-3.
80.
ZaitsevAN, Terry WilliamsC, JeffriesTE, StrekopytovS, MoutteJ, IvashchenkovaOV, 2014. Rare earth elements in phoscorites and carbonatites of the Devonian Kola Alkaline Province, Russia: examples from Kovdor, Khibina, Vuoriyarvi and Turiy Mys complexes.Ore Geol Rev. 61:204–225. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.02.002.
81.
ZepfV.2013. Rare earth elements. A new approach to the nexus of supply, demand and use: exemplified along the use of Neodymium in permanent magnets. Berlin, Heidelberg: SpringerSage UK: London, England. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35458-8
82.
ZozulyaDR, LyalinaLM, SavchenkoYE.2015. Britholite ores of the Sakharjok Zr–Y–REE deposit, Kola Peninsula: geochemistry, mineralogy, and formation stages.Geochem Int. 53(10):892–902. doi:10.1134/S0016702915080108.
