The Influence of Pedagogical Style on Students' Level of Ethical Reasoning

Abstract

Kohlberg's pedagogical approach to elevating levels of moral reasoning, based on the influence of group processes and leader behaviors, was used with MPA and MHA students enrolled in ethics courses over the past decade. Pre- and post-tests of students using the Defining Issues Test revealed consistent significant increases in level of students' ethical reasoning over the course of each semester class. Results were consistent across gender and U.S. region, though significant differences were found between the generations. Implications for intended and unintended consequences of pedagogical style in ethics instruction are discussed.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ajzen

Fishbein

. 1978. “Attitude-Behavior Relations: A Theoretical Analysis and Review of Empirical Research.” Psychological Bulletin, 84: 888–918.

Anchor

K. N.

Cross

H. J.

. 1974. “Maladaptive Aggression, Moral Perspective, and the Socialization Process.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30: 163–168.

Andrews

K. R.

1989. Ethics in Practice. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Arlow

Ulrich

T. A.

. 1985. “Business Ethics and Business School Graduates: A Longitudinal Study.” Akron Business and Economic Review, 16: 13–17.

Aronfreed

1976. “Moral Development from the Standpoint of a General Psychological Theory.” In Liekona

, Moral Development and Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Ashkanasy

N. M.

Falkus

Callan

V J.

. 2000. “Predictors of Ethical Code Use and Ethical Tolerance in the Public Sector.” Journal of Business Ethics, 25: 237–254.

Balda

J. B.

1994. “The Liability of Nonprofits to Donors.” Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 5: 67–83.

Barnard

C. I.

1946. “Functions and Pathology of Status Systems in Formal Organizations.” In Whyte

W. F.

, Industry and Society. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Baumhart

R. C.

1961. “How Ethical Are Businessmen?” Harvard Business Review, July-Aug.: 6–176ff.

10.

Bebeau

M.J.

Rest

J. R.

Narvaez

. 1999. “Beyond the Promise: A Perspective on Research in Moral Education.” Educational Researcher, 28: 18–26.

11.

Bennis

Nanus

. 1985. Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harper & Row.

12.

Berkowitz

M. W

Oser

1985. Moral Education: Theory and Application. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

13.

Blasi

1980. “Bridging Moral Cognition and Moral Actions: A Critical Review of the Literature.” Psychological Bulletin, 88: 1–45.

14.

Blatt

Kohlberg

. 1975. “The Effects of Classroom Moral Discussion Upon Children's Level of Moral Development.” Journal of Moral Education, 4: 129–161.

15.

Bok

1978. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life. New York: Random House.

16.

Bowman

J. S.

Menzel

D. C.

1998. Teaching Ethics and Values in Public Administration Programs. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

17.

Boyd

D. P.

1982. “Improving Ethical Awareness Through the Business of Society Curriculum.” Business and Society, 20: 27–31.

18.

Brabeck

1984. “Ethical Characteristics of Whistle Blowers.” Journal of Research in Personality, 18: 41–53.

19.

Brenner

S. N.

Molander

E. A.

. 1977. “Is the Ethics of Business Changing?” Harvard Business Review, 55: 57–71.

20.

Candee

1985. “Classical Ethics and Live Patient Simulations in the Moral Education of Health Care Professionals.” In Berkowitz

M. W.

Oser

, Moral Education: Theory and Application. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

21.

Candee

Kohlberg

. 1982. “The Relationship of Moral Judgment to Moral Action.” Proceedings from the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C.: August.

22.

Colby

Kohlberg

Gibbs

Lieberman

. 1983 “A Longitudinal Study of Moral Judgment.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48: 1–107.

23.

Cooper

T. L.

Handbook of Administrative Ethics. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2000.

24.

Cyert

R. M.

1992. “Defining Leadership and Explicating the Process.” Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 1: 29–38.

25.

Damon

Killen

. 1982. “Peer Interaction and the Process of Change in Children's Moral Reasoning.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 28: 347–367.

26.

Denhardt

1988. The Ethics of Public Service. New York: Greenwood Press.

27.

Derry

1989. “An Empirical Study of Moral Reasoning Among Managers.” Journal of Business Ethics, 8: 855–862.

28.

Derry

1987 “Moral Reasoning in Work-Related Conflicts.” Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, Vol. 9. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

29.

Dukerich

J. M.

Nichols

M. L.

Elm

D. R.

Vollrath

D.A.

. 1990. “Moral Reasoning in Groups: Leaders Make a Difference.” Human Relations, 43: 473–493.

30.

Dunivant

Jr.

1976. “Moral Judgment, Psychological Development, Situational Characteristics, and Moral Behavior: A Mediational Interactionist Model.” Dissertation Abstracts International, 36: 5342B–5343B. University Microfilms No. 76–8, 021.

31.

Eagly

A. H.

Carli

. 1981. “Sex of Researchers and Sex-Typed Communications as Determinants of Sex Differences in Influenceability: A Meta-Analysis of Social Influence Studies.” Psychological Bulletin, 90: 1–20.

32.

Emler

1996. “How Can We Decide Whether Moral Education Works?” Journal of Moral Education, 15: 117–126.

33.

Enright

R. D.

Lapsey

D. K.

Harris

D.J.

Schawver

D.J.

. 1983. “Moral Development Interventions in Early Adolescence.” Theory Into Practice, 22: 134–144.

34.

Fodor

E. M.

1972. “Delinquency and Susceptibility of Social Influence among Adolescents as a Function of Moral Development.” Journal of Social Psychology, 86: 257–260.

35.

Fodor

E. M.

1971. “Resistance to Social Influence among Adolescents as a Function of Level of Moral Development.” Journal of Social Psychology, 85: 121–126.

36.

Forsyth

D. R.

1981. “Moral Judgment: The Influence of Ethical Ideology.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7: 218–223.

37.

Gilligan

1988. “Two Moral Orientations: Gender Differences and Similarities.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34: 223–237.

38.

Gilligan

1977. “In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and of Morality” Harvard Educational Review, 47: 481–517.

39.

Goldman

S.A.

Arbuthnot

. 1979. “Teaching Medical Ethics: The Cognitive Developmental Approach.” Journal of Medical Ethics, 5: 171–181.

40.

Haan

1978. “Two Moralities in Action Contexts: Relationships to Thought, Ego Regulation, and Development.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36: 286–305.

41.

Haan

1975. “Hypothetical and Actual Moral Reasoning in a Situation of Civil Disobedience.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32: 255–270.

42.

Haan

Smith

Block

. 1968. “Moral Reasoning of Young Adults: Political-Social Behavior, Family Background, and Personality Correlates.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10: 183–201.

43.

Harris

Mussen

Rutherford

. 1976. “Some Cognitive, Behavioral, and Personality Correlates of Maturity of Moral Judgment.” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 28: 123–135.

44.

Hersh

Miller

J. P.

Fielding

G. D.

. 1980. Models of Moral Education: An Appraisal. New York: Longman.

45.

Higgins

1980. “Research and Measurement Issues in Moral Education Interventions.” In Mosher

, Moral Education: A First Generation of Research and Development. New York: Praeger.

46.

Hitt

W D.

1990. Ethics and leadership. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.

47.

Hogan

1982. “A Socioanalytical Theory of Personality.” In Page

, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 29. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

48.

Hogan

1973. “Moral Conduct and Moral Character” Psychological Bulletin, 79: 217–232.

49.

Jackall

R.A.

1989. Moral Mazes. New York: Oxford University Press.

50.

Jacobson

L. I.

Berger

S. E.

Millham

. 1970. “Individual Differences in Cheating During a Temptation Period When Confronting Failure.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15: 48–56.

51.

Jansen

Von Glinow

M.A.

. 1985. “Ethical Ambivalence and Organizational Reward Systems.” Academy of Management Review, 10: 814–822.

52.

Jeavons

T. H.

1992. “When the Management is the Message: Relating Values to Management Practice in Nonprofit Organizations.” Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 2: 403–417.

53.

Johnson

J.A.

Hogan

Zonderman

A. B.

Collins

Rogolsky

. 1981. “Moral Judgment, Personality, and Attitudes Toward Authority.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40: 370–373.

54.

Jurkiewicz

C. L.

Nichols

. 2002. “Ethics in the MPA Curriculum: What Difference Does it Make?” Journal of Public Affairs Education, 8(2): 103–114.

55.

Jurkiewicz

C. L.

2000. “The Trouble with Ethics: Results from a National Survey of Healthcare Executives.” HEC Forum, 12: 101–123.

56.

Jurkiewicz

C. L.

Massey

T. K.

Jr.

1998. “The Influence of Ethical Reasoning on Leader Effectiveness: An Empirical Study of Nonprofit Executives.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 9: 173–186.

57.

Jurkiewicz

C. L.

Thompson

C. R.

. 1999. “An Empirical Inquiry into the Ethical Standards of Healthcare Administration.” Public Integrity, 1: 41–53.

58.

Kaplan

S. E.

Newberry

K. J.

Reckers

P. M. J.

. 1997. “The Effect of Moral Reasoning and Educational Communications on Tax Evasion Intentions” Journal of the American Taxation Association, 19: 38–54.

59.

Kohlberg

1984. Essays on Moral Development Vol. II: The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.

60.

Kohlberg

1965. “Relationships Between the Development of Moral Judgment and Moral Conduct.” Paper presented at the biannual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.

61.

Kohlberg

1969. “Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive-developmental Approach to Socialization.” In Goslin

D.A.

, Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research. Chicago: Rand McNally.

62.

Kohlberg

1971. “From Is to Ought.” In Mischel

, Cognitive Development and Epistemology. NewYork: Academic Press.

63.

Kohlberg

Colby

Gibbs

Speicher-Dubin

. 1976. Moral Stage Scoring Manual. Cambridge: Center for Moral Education, Harvard University.

64.

Kohlberg

1976. “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach.” In Liekona

, Moral Development and Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

65.

Kohlberg

Colby

. 1983. “Reply to Fischer and Saltzstein.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48: 120–124.

66.

Kohlberg

Colby

Gibbs

Speicher-Dubin

. 1978. Standard Form Scoring Manual. Cambridge, MA: Center for Moral Education, Harvard University.

67.

Kohlberg

1981. The Philosophy of Moral Development. Cambridge, MA: Harper & Row Publishers.

68.

Kohlberg

Kramer

R. M.

. 1969. “Continuities and Discontinuities in Childhood and Adult Moral Development.” Human Development, 12: 93–120.

69.

Kohlberg

Scharf

Hickey

. 1975. “The Just Community Approach to Corrections: The Niantic Experiment,” In Kohlberg

, Collected Papers on Moral Development and Moral Education, Vol. II. Cambridge, MA: Center for Moral Education, Harvard University.

70.

Kohlberg

Turiel

. 1973. Morallzation: The Cognitive Development Approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

71.

Kramer

R. M.

Messick

D. M.

. 1996. “Ethical Cognition and the Framing of Organizational Dilemmas: Decision Makers as Intuitive Lawyers.” In Messick

D. M.

Tenbrunsel

A. E.

, Codes of Conduct. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

72.

Kramer

R. M.

1981. Voluntary Agencies in the Welfare State. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

73.

Kramer

R. M.

Grossman

. 1987. “Contracting for Social Services: Process Management and Resource Dependencies.” Social Service Review, 35: 32–55.

74.

Landis

J. R.

Koch

G. G.

. 1977. “The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data.” Biometrics, 33: 159–174.

75.

Leming

J. S.

1981. “Curricular Effectiveness in Moral/Values Educations Review of Research.” Journal of Moral Education, 10: 147–164.

76.

Leming

J. S.

1978. “Cheating Behavior, Situational Influence, and Moral Development.” Journal of Educational Research, 71: 214–217.

77.

Lewis

C. W.

1991. The Ethics Challenge in Public Service. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

78.

Lewis

1989. Liar's Poker. New York: Norton.

79.

Lickona

1976. Moral Development and Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

80.

Lifton

P D.

1985. “Individual Differences in Moral Development: The Relation of Sex, Gender, and Personality to Morality.” Journal of Personality, 53: 306–334.

81.

Lind

2000. Can Morality Be Taught? Berlin: Logos-Verlag.

82.

Lind

1997. “The Optimal Age for Moral Educations: Review of Intervention Studies and an Experimental Tests of the Dual-Aspect Theory of Moral Development and Education.” Moral and Democracy Psychology and Education.

83.

Luke

J. S.

1991. “New Leadership Requirements for Public Administrators.” In Bowman

J. L.

, Ethical Frontiers in Public Management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

84.

Malinowski

C. I.

1979. “Cheating as a Function of Moral Judgment and Selected Personality and Situation Variables” Dissertation Abstracts International, 39: 5143B–5144B. University Microfilms No. 7908462.

85.

Malinowski

C. I.

Smith

C. P

. 1985. “Moral Reasoning and Moral Conduct: An Investigation Prompted by Kohlberg s Theory ” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49: 1016–1027.

86.

Martin

T. R.

1981. “Do Courses in Ethics Improve the Ethical Judgment of Students?” Business and Society, 20: 17–26.

87.

McCabe

D. L.

Dukerich

J. M.

Dutton

J. E.

. 1994. “The Effects of Professional Education on Values and the Resolution of Ethical Dilemmas: Business School vs. Law School Students.” Journal of Business Ethics, 13: 693–701.

88.

McGrath

J. E.

1984. Groups: Interaction and Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

89.

McGraw

K. M.

Bloomfield

. 1987. “Social Influence on Group Moral Decisions: The Interactive Effects of Moral Reasoning and Sex Role Orientation” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53: 1080–1087.

90.

Menzel

D. C.

1997. “Teaching Ethics and Values in Public Administration: Are We Making a Difference?” Public Administration Review, 57: 224–230.

91.

Narvaez

1998. “The Influence of Moral Schemas on the Reconstruction of Moral Narratives in Eighth Graders and College Students.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 90: 13–24.

92.

National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration . 1981. Standards for Professional Master's Degree Programs in Public Affairs and Administration. Washington, DC.: NASPAA.

93.

Nichols

M. L.

Day

V E.

. 1982. “A Comparison of Moral Reasoning of Groups and Individuals on the Defining Issues Test.” Academy of Management Journal, 25: 201–108.

94.

Nijhof

Fissche

Kees Looise

Jan

. “Coercion, Guidance and Mercifulness: The Different Influences of Ethics Programs on Decision-Making.” Journalof Business Ethics, 27: 33–43.

95.

Nucci

Weber

. 1991. “The Domain Approach to Values Education: From Theory to Practice.” In Kurtines

Gewirtz

, Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development: Theory, Research, and Application, Volume 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

96.

Nunner-Winkler

1984. “Two Moralities? A Critical Discussion of an Ethic of Care and Responsibility vs. an Ethic of Rights and Justice.” In Kurtines

W. M.

Gewirtz

J. L.

, Morality: Moral Behavior and Moral Development. New York: Wiley.

97.

O'Neill

1992. “Ethical Dimensions of Nonprofit Administration.” Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 3: 199–213.

98.

Ozar

D.T.

1998. “An Outcomes-Center Approach to Teaching.” In Bowman

J. S.

Menzel

D C.

, Teaching Ethics and Values in Public Administration Programs. Albany, NY: SUNY.

99.

Penn

W. Y.

Collier

B. D.

. 1985. “Current Research in Moral Development as a Decision Support System.” Journal of Business Ethics, 4: 131–136.

100.

Paiget

1932. The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Free Press.

101.

Penn

1990. “Teaching Ethics: A Direct Approach.” Journal of Moral Education, 19: 124–138.

102.

Power

F. C.

Higgins

Kohlberg

. 1989. Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral Education. New York: Columbia University Press.

103.

Radke-Yarrow

Zahn-Waxler

Chapman

. 1983. “Children's Prosocial Dispositions and Behavior.” In Hetherington

E. M.

, Socialization, Personality, and Social Development, Volume 4. New York: Wiley.

104.

Rest

J. R.

1983. “Morality” In Flavell

Markman

, Handbook of Child Psychology: Cognitive Development: Volume 3. New York: Wiley.

105.

Rest

J. R.

1979a. Revised Manual for the Defining Issues Test. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

106.

Rest

J. R.

1979b. Development in Judging Moral Issues. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

107.

Rest

J. R.

1980. “Basic Issues in Evaluating Moral Education Programs.” In Kuhmerker

Mentknoski

Erickson

V.L.

, Evaluating Moral Development. Schenectady, NY: Character Research Press.

108.

Rest

J. R.

1986. DIT Manual. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

109.

Rest

J. R.

Narvaez

Thoma

S. J.

Bebeau

M. J.

. 1999. “DIT2: Devising and Testing a Revised Instrument of Moral Judgment.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 91: 644–659.

110.

Rest

J. R.

Thoma

S.J.

. 1986. “Educational Programs and Interventions.” In Rest

J. R.

, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Praeger.

111.

Rohr

1976. “The Study of Ethics in the PA Curriculum.” Public Administration Review, 36: 398–406.

112.

Rosenhan

D. L.

Moore

B. S.

Underwood

. 1976. “The Social Psychology of Moral Behavior.” In Lickona

, Moral Development and Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

113.

Rothschild

White

T.D.

. 1999. “Disclosing Misconduct in Work Organizations: An Empirical Analysis of the Situational Factors that Foster Whistle-Blowing.” Research in the Sociology of Work, 8: 211–227.

114.

Santrock

J. W.

1975. “Moral Structure: The Interrelations of Moral Behavior, Moral Judgment, and Moral Affect.” Journal of Genetic Psychology, 27: 201–213.

115.

Schlaefli

Rest

Thoma

S.J.

. 1985. “Does Moral Education Improve Moral Judgment? A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies Using the Defining Issues Test.” Review of Education Research, 55: 319–352.

116.

Schmidt

Posner

. 1983. Managerial Values in Perspective. New York: American Management Association.

117.

Schwartz

S. H.

Feldman

K.A.

Brown

M. E.

Heingartner

. 1969. “Some Personality Correlates of Conduct in Two Situations of Moral Conflict.” Journal of Personality, 37: 41–57.

118.

Self

D. J.

Baldwin

D. C.

Jr. Wolinsky

E D.

Shadduck

J. A.

. 2000. “Further Exploration of the Relationship between Veterinary Medical Education and Moral Development.” Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 20: 319–352.

119.

Shapiro

S. S.

Wilk

M. B.

. 1965. “An Analysis of Variance Test for Normality (Complete Samples).” Biometrika, 52: 591–611.

120.

Shapiro

S. S.

Wilk

M. B.

Chen

H.J.

. 1968. “A Comparative Study of Various Tests for Normality.” Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63: 1343–1372.

121.

Siegel

1956. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill.

122.

Smith

C.A.

Organ

D. W.

Near

J. P

. 1983. “Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Its Nature and Antecedents.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 68: 653–663.

123.

Stewart

D. W.

Sprinthall

Siemienska

. 1997. “Ethical Reasoning in a Time of Revolution: A Study of Local Officials in Poland.” Public Administration Review, 57(5): 445–453.

124.

Stratton

W. E.

Flynn

W. R.

Johnson

G.A.

. 1981. “Moral Development and Decision Making: A Study of Student Ethics.” Journal of Enterprise Management, 35–41.

125.

Strauss

Howe

. 1991. Generations: The History of America's Future. New York: William Morrow.

126.

Thoma

S. J.

Rest

J. R.

. 1999. “The Relationship Between Moral Decision Making and Patterns of Consolidation and Transition in Moral Judgment Development.” Developmental Psychology, 35: 323–334.

127.

Thoma

S. J.

Rest

J. R.

. 1986. “Moral Judgment, Behavior, Decision Making, and Attitudes.” In Rest

J. R.

, Moral Development: Advances in Theory and Research. New York: Praeger.

128.

Trevino

L. K.

1986. “Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model.” Academy of Management Review, 11: 601–617.

129.

Trevino

L. K.

1990. “A Cultural Perspective on Changing and Developing Organizational Ethics.” In Woodman

R.W.

Passmore

, Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4: 194–230.

130.

Trevino

L. K.

Sutton

C. D.

Woodman

R.W.

. 1985. “Effects of Cognitive Moral Development and Reinforcement Contingencies on Ethical Decision-Making: An Experiment.” Paper presented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, San Diego, CA.

131.

Trevino

L. K.

Youngblood

S.A.

. 1990. “Bad Apples and Bad Barrels: A Causal Analysis of Ethical Decision-Making Behavior.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 378–385.

132.

Vardi

2001. “The Effects of Organizational and Ethical Climates on Misconduct at Work.” Journal of Business Ethics, 29: 325–339.

133.

Vecchio

R. P

1981. “An Individual Difference Interpretation of the Conflicting Predictions Generated by Equity Theory and Expectancy theory.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 66: 470–481.

134.

Wakefield

1976. “Ethics and the Public Service: A Case for Individual Responsibility.” Public Administration Review, 43.

135.

Walker

1991. “Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning.” In Jurtines

Gewirtz

, Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, Volume 2: Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

136.

Weber

1990. “Managers' Moral Reasoning: Assessing Their Responses to Three Moral Dilemmas.” Human Relations, 43: 687–702.

137.

Wittmer

Holcomb

Hutton

Nelson

D. R.

. 1998. “Reinventing the Master of Business Administration Curriculum: Integrating Ethics, Law, and Public Policy.” In Bowman

J. S.

Menzel

D. C.

, Teaching Ethics and Values in Public Administration Programs. Albany, NY: SUNY.

138.

Werhane

1996. “The Business Ethics of Risk, Reasoning, and Decision Making.” In Messick

D. M.

Tenbrunsel

A. E.

, Codes of Conduct. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

139.

Wood

J.A.

Longenecker

J. G.

McKinney

J.A.

Moore

C.W.

. 1988. “Ethical Attitudes of Students and Business Professionals: A Study of Moral Reasoning ” Journal of Business Ethics, 7: 249–257.