We examine the psychometric properties of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) from a modern psychometric perspective, including second-order models, better estimation of reliability, and measurement invariance, among a sample of young adults (N = 610, M = 21.33 years, SD = 3.09 years) from Portugal. Results indicated that only the four-factor intercorrelated confirmatory models of the WAI Distress and Restraint scales, and the two-factor intercorrelated confirmatory models of the WAI Defensiveness scales showed adequate fits. The WAI showed good reliability and distinctive correlates with other psychometric measures and criterion variables. Cross-gender measurement invariance was established. Our findings support the WAI as a valid and reliable measure.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Educational Research Association. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing.
2.
BaumeisterR. F.VohsK. D., & FunderD. C. (2007). Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior?Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 2(4), 396–403. 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00051.x
3.
BentlerP., & WuE. (2018). Supplement to EQS 6.4 for Windows user’s guide. Multivariate Software.
4.
BlagovP. S., & SingerJ. A. (2004). Four dimensions of self‐defining memories (specificity, meaning, content, and affect) and their relationships to self‐restraint, distress, and repressive defensiveness. Journal of Personality, 72(3), 481–511. 10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00270.x
5.
BrownT. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
6.
CauffmanE.PiqueroA. R.BroidyL.EspelageD. L., & MazerolleP. (2004). Heterogeneity in the association between social-emotional adjustment profiles and deviant behavior among male and female serious juvenile offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48(2), 235–252. 10.1177/0306624X03261255
7.
ChabotJ. A. (1973). Repression-sensitization: A critique of some neglected variables in the literature. Psychological Bulletin,80, 122–129. 10.1037/h0034785
8.
ClarkL. A., & WatsonD. (2019). Constructing validity: New developments in creating objective measuring instruments. Psychological Assessment, 31(12), 1412–1427. 10.1037/pas0000626
9.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504. 10.1080/10705510701301834
10.
DrotarD.AgleD. P.EcklC. L., & ThompsonP. A. (1996). Impact of the repressive personality style on the measurement of psychological distress in children and adolescents with chronic illness: An example from hemophilia. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 21(2), 283–293. 10.1093/jpepsy/21.2.283
11.
FarrellA. D., & SullivanT. N. (2000). Structure of the Weinberger adjustment inventory self-restraint scale and its relation to problem behaviors in adolescence. Case Western Reserve University, Department of Psychology.
12.
FeldmanS. S., & WeinbergerD. A. (1994). Self-restraint as a mediator of family influences on boys’ delinquent behavior: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 65(1), 195–211. 10.2307/1131375
13.
FeldmanS. S.WentzelK. R.WeinbergerD. A., & MunsonJ. A. (1990). Marital satisfaction of parents of preadolescent boys and its relationship to child and family functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 4(2), 213–234. 10.1037/0893-3200.4.2.213
14.
FordJ. A., & BlumensteinL. (2013). Self-control and substance use among college students. Journal of Drug Issues, 43(1), 56–68. 10.1177/0022042612462216
15.
GrasmickH. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J., & Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5–29. 10.1177/0022427893030001002
16.
GonzalezT. R.Enriquez-HernandezC. B.Hernandez PozoM. R.Ruiz MontalvoM. E.CastilloR. L.SanchezY. E.MarvanM. L., & LarraldeC. (2014). Validation of the Mexican version of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI). Salud Mental,37, 241–246.
17.
GottfredsonM. R., & HirschiT. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
18.
HayesA., & CouttsJ. (2020). Use Omega rather than Cronbach’s Alpha for estimating reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1–24. 10.1080/19312458.2020.1718629
19.
HaysR. D.HayashiT., & StewartA. L. (1989). A five-item measure of socially desirable response set. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49(3), 629–636. 10.1177/001316448904900315
20.
HirschT. (2004). Self-control and crime. In Baumeister R. F., Vohs K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 537–552). New York, NY: Guilford.
21.
HuckabyW. J.KohlerM.GarnerE. H., & SteinerH. (1998). A comparison between the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory with incarcerated adolescent males. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 28(4), 273–285. 10.1023/a:1022640216393
22.
IBM Corp. (2020). IBM SPSS statistics for Windows (version 27).
23.
JalnapurkarI.AllenM., & PigottA. T. (2018). Sex differences in anxiety disorders: A review. Psychiatry, Depression & Anxiety, 4, 1–9. 10.24966/PDA-0150/100011
24.
JonesS. E. (2017). Does choice of measure matter? Assessing the similarities and differences among self-control scales. Journal of Criminal Justice, 50, 78–85. 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.005
25.
KjelsbergE., & RustadA. B. (2009). Previous offending in young female prisoners is associated with drug problems, drug offenses, and low social-emotional restraint. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 8(4), 279–285. 10.1080/14999011003635571
26.
KlineR. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
27.
LoeberR., Farrington, D., & Waschbusch, D. (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders. In R. Loeber & D. Farrington (Eds.), Serious & violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 13–29). Sage Publications.
MathnaB.RobertsJ., & KoenM. (2020). A comparison of self-control measures and drug and alcohol use among college students. Midwest Social Sciences Journal, 23(1), 31–53. 10.22543/0796.231.1027
30.
MeđedovićJ.PetrovićB.Želeskov-ĐorićJ., & SavićM. (2017). Interpersonal and affective psychopathy traits can enhance human fitness. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 3(4), 306–315. 10.1007/s40806-017-0097-5
31.
MilfontT. L., & FischerR. (2010). Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3(1), 111–130. 10.21500/20112084.857
32.
PagetV., Consoli, S. M., & Carton, S. (2010). Traduction et validation française du questionnaire de repression de Weinberger [French translation and validation of the Weinberger Repression Questionnaire]. Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 168(8), 593–601. 10.1016/j.amp.2009.09.021
33.
PaulhusD.BuckelsE.TrapnellP., & JonesD. (2021). Screening for dark personalities: The Short Dark Tetrad (SD4). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(3), 208–222. 10.1027/1015-5759/a000602
34.
PechorroP.Ayala-NunesL.OliveiraJ. P.NunesC., & GonçalvesR. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Socially Desirable Response Set-5 among incarcerated male and female juvenile offenders. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 49(Pt A), 17–21. 10.1016/j.ijlp.2016.05.003
35.
PechorroP.DeLisiM.QuintasJ.GonçalvesR. A., & MarocoJ. (2021). Investigating sex-related moderation effects and mediation effects of self-control on delinquency among Portuguese youth. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 65(8), 882–898. 10.1177/0306624X20981037
36.
PechorroP.KarandikarS.CarvalhoB.DeLisiM., & JonesD. (2023). Screening for dark personalities in Portugal: Intra- and interpersonal correlates, reliability and invariance of the Short Dark Tetrad Portuguese version. Deviant Behavior, 44(4), 551–566. 10.1080/01639625.2022.2071655
37.
PechorroP.DeLisiM.FreitasA.GonçalvesR., & NunesC. (2023). Examination of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory—Short Form among Portuguese young adults: Psychometrics and measurement invariance. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 67(8), 803–821. 10.1177/0306624X211066838
38.
PechorroP.DeLisiM.PachecoC.GonçalvesR.MarocoJ., & QuintasJ. (press). Examination of Grasmick et al.’s Low Self-Control Scale and of a short version with cross-gender measurement invariance. Crime & Delinquency, 001112872110736. 10.1177/00111287211073674
39.
PutnickD. L., & BornsteinM. H. (2016). Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review : DR, 41, 71–90. 10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004
40.
Romo-GonzálezT., Enríquez-Hernández, C. B., Hernández-Pozo, M. D. R., Ruiz-Montalvo, M. E., Castillo, R. L., Ehrenzweig Sánchez, Y., Marván, M. L., & Larralde, C. (2014). Validation of the Mexican version of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI). Salud Mental, 37, 247–246. 10.17711/sm.0185-3325.2014.029
41.
SimmsL., & WatsonD. (2007). The construct validation approach to personality scale construction. In RobinsR.FraleyR., & KruegerR. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 240–258). Guilford Press.
42.
SumterS. R.BokhorstC. L., & WestenbergP. M. (2008). The robustness of the factor structure of the self-restraint scale: What does self-restraint encompass. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 1082–1087. 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.11.006
43.
TinklenbergJ. A.SteinerH.HuckabyW. J., & TinklenbergJ. R. (1996). Criminal recidivism predicted from narratives of violent juvenile delinquents. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 27(2), 69–79. 10.1007/BF02353801
44.
TurveyC., & SaloveyP. (1994). Measures of repression: Converging on the same construct?Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 13(4), 279–289. 10.2190/81FK-MLCG-NEE6-KGE0
45.
VaughnM. G.Salas‐WrightC. P.DeLisiM., & PerronB. (2014). Correlates of traumatic brain injury among juvenile offenders: A multi‐site study. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health : CBMH, 24(3), 188–203. 10.1002/cbm.1900
46.
VazsonyiA. T., & HuangL. (2015). Hirschi’s reconceptualization of self-control: Is truth truly the daughter of time? Evidence from eleven cultures. Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1), 59–68. 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.12.005
47.
VazsonyiA. T.MikuškaJ., & KelleyE. L. (2017). It’s time: A meta-analysis on the self-control-deviance link. Journal of Criminal Justice, 48, 48–63. 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.10.001
48.
VazsonyiA. T.PickeringL. E.JungerM., & HessingD. (2001). Comparative study of self-control and the prediction of deviance. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(2), 91–131. 10.1177/0022427801038002001
WeinbergerD. (1991). Social-emotional adjustment in older children and adults: Psychometric properties of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory. Case Western Reserve University.
51.
WeinbergerD. A. (1994). Distress and self-restraint as superordinate dimensions of adjustment across the life span: Confirmatory factor analyses in clinical and non-clinical samples. Case Western Reserve University.
52.
WeinbergerD. A. (1997). Distress and self-restraint as measures of adjustment across the lifespan: Confirmatory factor analyses in clinical and non-clinical samples. Psychological Assessment, 9(2), 132–135. 10.1037/1040-3590.9.2.132
53.
WeinbergerD. A., & SchwartzG. E. (1990). Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: A typological perspective. Journal of Personality, 58(2), 381–417. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00235.x
54.
WeinbergerD. A., & DavidsonM. N. (1994). Styles of inhibiting emotional expression: Distinguishing repressive coping from impression management. Journal of Personality, 62(4), 587–613. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00310.x
55.
WeinbergerD. A., & BartholomewK. (1996). Social-emotional adjustment and patterns of alcohol use among young adults. Journal of Personality, 64(2), 495–527. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00519.x
56.
WeinbergerD. A.SchwartzG., & DavidsonR. (1979). Low-anxious, high-anxious, and repressive coping styles: Psychometric patterns and behavioral and physiological responses to stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(4), 369–380. 10.1037/0021-843X.88.4.369
57.
WeinbergerD. A.TublinS. K.FordM. E., & FeldmanS. S. (1990). Preadolescents’ social-emotional adjustment and selective attrition in family research. Child Development, 61(5), 1374–1386. 10.2307/1130749
58.
van WidenfeltB. M.TreffersP. D. A.de BeursE.SiebelinkB. M., & KoudijsE. (2005). Translation and cross-cultural adaptation of assessment instruments used in psychological research with children and families. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(2), 135–147. 10.1007/s10567-005-4752-1
59.
WillemsenJ., & VerhaegheP. (2012). Psychopathy and internalizing psychopathology. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 35(4), 269–275. 10.1016/j.ijlp.2012.04.004
60.
ZigmondA. S., & SnaithR. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x
