Literature on deficiencies of poor readers is reviewed and criticized. Based on studies of oral reading errors and instructional effects, the major problem for beginning readers is learning to decode printed words to oral language accurately. Low decoding accuracy persists into secondary school and is derived mainly from inadequate early development of auditory and phonological skills. Poor readers older than about 8 were found to be inferior to good readers in: 1) decoding accuracy, 2) decoding speed, 3) perception of orthographic regularity, 4) segmenting sentences and paragraphs sematically, and 5) constructing meaning at sentence and paragraph levels. Optimal teaching for poor readers should include a substantial commitment of time to directed, well-integrated instruction aimed toward improving all cognitive deficiencies related to reading. Instructional principles should be adapted differently to poor readers at primary and intermediate levels.
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