Monolithic components are often insufficient when a combination of conflicting properties, or a variation in properties at different regions within a material is required. Functionally graded composite materials (FGCM) are a relatively new class of materials with a systematic variation of the composition, microstructure, and properties along one direction. The graded structure offers tailorable property combinations not achievable with monolithic composites and significant recent research has been carried out on their development. An effort has been made in this article to review the latest developments on bulk FGCMs since 2015. The different processing techniques used for their fabrication have been discussed, highlighting their advantages, limitations, and recent advancements pertaining to FGCM fabrication. Various physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of FGCMs have been treated separately, and wherever possible, summary plots combining data from various research articles have been developed. Finally, potential areas for directing future FGCM research have been identified.
Abbreviations: AM: Additive manufacturing; ANOVA: Analysis of variance; ATZ: Alumina toughened zirconia; BCP: Biphasic calcium phosphate; BEI or BSE: Backscattered electron images; BG: Bioactive glass; CAD: Computer aided design; CDHAp: Calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite; CNT: Carbon nanotube; CoCGO: Cobalt and gadolinium doped ceria; CTE: Coefficient of thermal expansion; DED: Direct energy deposition; DIC: Digital image correlation; ELDS: Electro discharge sintering; EDX: Energy dispersive x-ray analyser; FDM: Fused deposition modelling; FGCC: Functionally graded cemented carbides; FGCM: Functionally graded composite materials; FGHM: Functionally graded hard metals; FSP: Friction stir processing; FSW: Friction stir welding; GDI: Graded density impactor; HA: Hydroxyapatite; HIP: Hot isostatic pressing; LCM: Lithography based ceramic manufacturing; LDMD: Laser direct metal deposition; LMD: Laser metal deposition; LSCF: Lanthanum cobalt ferrite; MLG: Multilayered graphene; MMC: Metal matrix composites; MWCNT: Multi-walled carbon nanotubes; PAS: Plasma activated sintering; PFC: Plasma facing components; PM: Powder metallurgy; RHA: Rice husk ash; RVE: Representative volume element; SEM: Scanning electron microscope; SHAp: Stoichiometric hydroxyapatite; SLA: Stereolithography; SLM: Selective laser melting; SLS: Selective laser sintering; SOFC: Solid oxide fuel cells; SPS: Spark plasma sintering; TEM: Transmission electron microscope; UHTC: Ultra-high temperature ceramics; WAAM: Wire arc additive manufacturing; YSZ: Yttria stabilized zirconia
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AshbyMF.Materials selection in mechanical design. 4th ed.Burlington (MA): Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier; 2011.
2.
ChawlaNChawlaKK.Metal matrix composites. New York (NY): Springer; 2013.
3.
AshbyMF.Criteria for selecting the components of composites. Acta Metall Mater. 1993;41:1313–1335.
4.
HutchingsIShipwayP.Tribology: friction and wear of engineering materials. 2nd ed.Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017.
5.
KeneshlooMPaidarMTaheriM.Role of SiC ceramic particles on the physical and mechanical properties of Al–4%Cu metal matrix composite fabricated via mechanical alloying. J Compos Mater. 2017;51:1285–1298. doi:10.1177/0021998316673145.
6.
RameshCSKeshavamurthyRChannabasappaBHFriction and wear behavior of Ni–P coated Si3N4 reinforced Al6061 composites. Tribol Int. 2010;43:623–634. doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2009.09.011.
7.
DasDKMishraPCSinghSProperties of ceramic-reinforced aluminium matrix composites – a review. Int J Mech Mater Eng. 2014;9:1–16. doi:10.1186/s40712-014-0012-9.
8.
ÜbeyliMBalciESarikanBThe ballistic performance of SiC – AA7075 functionally graded composite produced by powder metallurgy. Mater Des. 2014;56:31–36. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2013.10.092.
9.
AydinMApalakMK.Experimental damage analysis of Al/SiC functionally graded sandwich plates under ballistic impact. Mater Sci Eng A. 2016;671:107–117. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2016.06.048.
10.
HiranoTKuroishiN. United States Patent (19) 1988.
11.
BirmanVByrdL.Modeling and analysis of functionally graded materials and structures. Appl Mech Rev. 2007;60:195–216. doi:10.1115/1.2777164.
12.
ErdoganF.Fracture mechanics of functionally graded materials. Compos Eng. 1995;5:753–770.
13.
OzaMJGünterKClaudiaEDeveloping a hybrid Al–SiC-graphite functionally graded composite material for optimum composition and mechanical properties. Mater Sci Eng A. 2021;805: 140625, doi:10.1016/j.msea.2020.140625.
TampieriACelottiGSprioSPorosity-graded hydroxyapatite ceramics to replace natural bone. Biomaterials. 2001;22:1365–1370. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00290-8.
16.
ZhangCChenFHuangZAdditive manufacturing of functionally graded materials: a review. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;764:138209, doi:10.1016/j.msea.2019.138209.
17.
QuDZhouZTanJCharacterization of W/Fe functionally graded materials manufactured by resistance sintering under ultra-high pressure. Fusion Eng Des. 2015;91:21–24. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.12.014.
18.
ChaubeyAKGuptaRKumarRFabrication and characterization of W–Cu functionally graded material by spark plasma sintering process. Fusion Eng Des. 2018;135:24–30. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.07.010.
19.
YusefiAParvinNMohammadiH.W–Cu functionally graded material: Low temperature fabrication and mechanical characterization. J Phys Chem Solids. 2018;115:26–35. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2017.11.029.
20.
YangGLYuQFengDKFabrication of functionally graded W(Mo)-Cu composites by explosive consolidation. Mater Res Innov. 2015;19:S1-45–9. doi:10.1179/1432891715Z.0000000001366.
21.
RadhikaNSasikumarJSyleshJLDry reciprocating wear and frictional behaviour of B4C reinforced functionally graded and homogenous aluminium matrix composites. J Mater Res Technol. 2020;9:1578–1592. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.11.084.
22.
RadhikaN.Comparison of the mechanical and wear behaviour of aluminium alloy with homogeneous and functionally graded silicon nitride composites. Sci Eng Compos Mater. 2018;25:261–271. doi:10.1515/secm-2015-0160.
23.
BabuKVJappesJTWRajanTPDDry sliding wear studies on SiC reinforced functionally graded aluminium matrix composites. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part L J Mater Des Appl. 2016;230:182–189. doi:10.1177/1464420714556665.
BahraminasabMGhaffariSEslami-ShahedH.Al2O3-Ti functionally graded material prepared by spark plasma sintering for orthopaedic applications. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2017;72:82–89. doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2017.04.024.
26.
HuangCYChenYL.Effect of varied alumina/zirconia content on ballistic performance of a functionally graded material. Int J Refract Met Hard Mater. 2017;67:129–140. doi:10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2017.04.002.
27.
CaiYChengLYinHPreparation and mechanical properties of Ti3SiC2/SiC functionally graded materials. Ceram Int. 2017;43:6648–6658. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.02.025.
28.
KachaevAALebedevaYEOsin IVFunctionally graded ceramic material prepared by spark plasma sintering (SPS). Russ J Appl Chem. 2017;90:1117–1121. doi:10.1134/S107042721707014X.
ChungHDasS.Functionally graded Nylon-11/silica nanocomposites produced by selective laser sintering. Mater Sci Eng A. 2008;487:251–257. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2007.10.082.
31.
LiWHeDBaiJ.The influence of nano/micro hybrid structure on the mechanical and self-sensing properties of carbon nanotube-microparticle reinforced epoxy matrix composite. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. 2013;54:28–36. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2013.07.002.
32.
RamSCChattopadhyayKChakrabartyI.Microstructures and high temperature mechanical properties of A356-Mg2Si functionally graded composites in as-cast and artificially aged (T6) conditions. J Alloys Compd. 2019;805:454–470. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.07.075.
33.
NisarAKhanMMBalaniK.Enhanced thermo-mechanical damage tolerance of functionally graded ZrB2-20SiC ceramic reinforced with carbon nanotubes. Ceram Int. 2019;45:6198–6208. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.12.097.
PandaS.Design and effective properties of a functionally graded unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite. Proc. ASME 2015 conf. smart mater. adapt. struct. intell. syst. SMASIS2015, Colorado springs, Colorado, USA: 2015, p. 1–8.
36.
BirmanV.Stability of functionally graded hybrid composite plates. Compos Eng. 1995;5:913–921.
37.
ZhaoLZZhaoMCaoXThermal expansion of a novel hybrid SiC foam–SiC particles–Al composites. Compos Sci Technol. 2007;67:3404–3408. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.03.020.
38.
RoySButzBWannerA.Damage evolution and domain-level anisotropy in metal/ceramic composites exhibiting lamellar microstructures. Acta Mater. 2010;58:2300–2312. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2009.12.015.
39.
RoySSchellKGBucharskyECProcessing and characterization of elastic and thermal expansion behaviour of interpenetrating Al12Si/alumina composites. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;743:339–348. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.100.
40.
RoySGibmeierJSchellKGInternal load transfer in an interpenetrating metal/ceramic composite material studied using energy dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;753:247–252. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2019.03.049.
41.
KotaNCharanMSLahaTReview on development of metal / ceramic interpenetrating phase composites and critical analysis of their properties. Ceram Int. 2022;48:1451–1483. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.09.232.
42.
ChaoZLJiangLTChenGQThe microstructure and ballistic performance of B4C/AA2024 functionally graded composites with wide range B4C volume fraction. Compos Part B Eng. 2019;161:627–638. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.12.147.
43.
NaebeMShirvanimoghaddamK.Functionally graded materials: a review of fabrication and properties. Appl Mater Today. 2016;5:223–245. doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2016.10.001.
44.
SalehBJiangJFathiR30 years of functionally graded materials: an overview of manufacturing methods. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2020;201:108376, doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108376.
45.
SalehBJiangJMaAReview on the influence of different reinforcements on the microstructure and wear behavior of functionally graded aluminum matrix composites by centrifugal casting. Met Mater Int. 2020;26:933–960. doi:10.1007/s12540-019-00491-0.
46.
LiYFengZHaoLA review on functionally graded materials and structures via additive manufacturing: from multi-scale design to versatile functional properties. Adv Mater Technol. 2020;5(6):1900981. doi:10.1002/admt.201900981.
ToudehdehghanALimJWFooKEA brief review of functionally graded materials. MATEC Web Conf. 2017;131:1–6. doi:10.1051/matecconf/201713103010.
49.
BhavarVKattirePThakareSA review on functionally gradient materials (FGMs) and their applications. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2017;229: 012021, doi:10.1088/1757-899X/229/1/012021.
50.
PetitCMontanaroLPalmeroP.Functionally graded ceramics for biomedical application: concept, manufacturing, and properties. Int J Appl Ceram Technol. 2018;15:820–840. doi:10.1111/ijac.12878.
51.
SarathchandraDTKanmani SubbuSVenkaiahN.Functionally graded materials and processing techniques: an art of review. Mater Today Proc. 2018;5:21328–21334. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.536.
52.
NikbakhtSKamarianSShakeriM.A review on optimization of composite structures part II: functionally graded materials. Compos Struct. 2019;214:83–102. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.01.105.
53.
SalehBJiangJMaAEffect of main parameters on the mechanical and wear behaviour of functionally graded materials by centrifugal casting: a review. Met Mater Int. 2019;25:1395–1409. doi:10.1007/s12540-019-00273-8.
54.
Laptiev AV.Some trends in improving WC–Co hardmetals. II. Functionally graded hardmetals. Powder Metall Met Ceram. 2019;58:170–183. doi:10.1007/s11106-019-00061-4.
55.
PariharRSSettiSGSahuRK.Recent advances in the manufacturing processes of functionally graded materials: a review. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron. 2018;25:309–336. doi:10.1515/secm-2015-0395.
56.
AydınMTokerGPAcarEProcessing and compressive response of Al/SiC functionally graded composites. Eur Phys J Plus. 2020;135, doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-020-00501-w.
57.
ChenFJiaMSheYMechanical behavior of AlN/Mo functionally graded materials with various compositional structures. J Alloys Compd. 2020;816:152512, doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.152512.
58.
DeierlingPE.Thermomechanical response of metal-ceramic graded composites for high-temperature aerospace applications [doctoral thesis]. University of Iowa; 2016.
59.
MadanRBhowmickS.Modeling of functionally graded materials to estimate effective thermo-mechanical properties. World J Eng. 2020; doi:10.1108/WJE-09-2020-0445.
60.
YinHMPaulinoGHButtlarWGMicromechanics-based thermoelastic model for functionally graded particulate materials with particle interactions. J Mech Phys Solids. 2007;55:132–160. doi:10.1016/j.jmps.2006.05.002.
61.
VoigtW.Theoretische studien über die elasticitätsverhältnisse der krystalle. Goettingen: Königliche Gesellschaft Der Wissenschaften Zu Göttingen; 1887.
62.
ReussA.Berechnung der fließgrenze von mischkristallen auf grund der plastizitätsbedingung für einkristalle. ZAMM J Appl Math Mech/Zeitschrift Für Angew Math Und Mech. 1929;9:49–58. doi:10.1002/zamm.19290090104.
63.
HashinZShtrikmanS.A variational approach to the theory of the elastic behaviour of multiphase materials. J Mech Phys Solids. 1963;11:127–140. doi:10.1016/0022-5096(63)90060-7.
64.
MoriTTanakaK.Average stress in matrix and average elastic energy of materials with misfitting inclusions. Acta Metall. 1973;21:571–574.
TurnerP.Thermal expansion stresses in reinforced plastics. Research paper RP1745, Vol. 37, U.S. Department of Commerce National Bureau of Standards; 1946.
67.
KernerEH.The elastic and thermo-elastic properties of composite media. Proc Phys Soc Sect B. 1956;69:808–813.
68.
SchaperyR.Thermal expansion coefficients of composite materials based on energy principles. J Compos Mater. 1968;2:380–404, doi:10.1177/002199836800200308.
69.
BudianskyB.Thermal and thermoplastic properties of isotropic composites. J Compos Mater. 1970;4:286–295.
70.
WienerO.Die theorie des mischkorpers fur das feld der stationaren stromung. Abh Math-Phys Kl Konigl Sachs Ges Wissen. 1912;32:509–604.
71.
BruggemanV.Berechnung verschiedener physikalischer Konstanten von heterogenen substanzen. I. Dielektrizitätskonstanten und Leitfähigkeiten der Mischkörper aus Isotropen Substanzen. Ann Phys. 1935;416:665–679.
HashinZ.Assessment of the self consistent scheme approximation: conductivity of particulate composites. J Compos Mater. 1968;2:284–300.
74.
HashinZShtrikmanS.A variational approach to the theory of the effective magnetic permeability of multiphase materials. J Appl Phys. 1962;33:3125–3131.
75.
ThorpeT.Kopp memorial lecture. L.-The life work of Hermann Kopp. J Chem Soc Trans. 1893;63:775–815.
76.
RosenBHashinZ.Effective thermal expansion coefficients and specific heats of composite materials. Int J Eng Sci. 1970;8:157–173.
77.
FlynnCOMcCormackBAO.A three-layer model of skin and its application in simulating wrinkling. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. 2009;12:125–134. doi:10.1080/10255840802529933.
78.
CowinSCGailaniGBenallaM.Hierarchical poroelasticity: movement of interstitial fluid between porosity levels in bones. Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2009;367:3401–3444. doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0099.
79.
ChunKJChoiHHLeeJY.Comparison of mechanical property and role between enamel and dentin in the human teeth. J Dent Biomech. 2014;5:1–7. doi:10.1177/1758736014520809.
80.
DovbishchukMVitryanyukVKrushinskiiAFeasibility of manufacture of hard-alloy parts with variable physicochemical properties. Powder Met Met Ceram. 1966;5:709–712.
81.
LinenkoYLisovskiiAVirovetsLWear resistance of cutters reinforced with hardmetal inserts with different cobalt contents across the thickness. Rock Cut Tools. 1970: 73–78.
82.
ShenMBeverMB.Gradient in polymeric materials. J Mater Sci. 1972;7:741–746.
83.
BeverMBDuwezPE.On gradient composites. ARPA Mater Summer Conf. 1970: 117–140.
84.
KoizumiM.FGM activities in Japan. Compos Part B Eng. 1997;28:1–4. doi:10.1016/s1359-8368(96)00016-9.
85.
CherradiNKawasakiAGasikM.Worldwide trends in functional gradient materials research and development. Compos Eng. 1994;4:883–894.
86.
RadhikaNAndrew JeffersonJ.Experimental studies and comparison of centrifugally cast Cu/SiC and Cu/Si3N4 functionally graded composites on mechanical and wear behavior. J Tribol. 2018;140, doi:10.1115/1.4040160.
87.
RaghuRNampoothiriJSatish KumarTMicrostructure and mechanical properties of Al/MgAl2O4 in situ composites synthesized by ultrasonic cavitation. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2019;72:1013–1021. doi:10.1007/s12666-019-01564-9.
88.
MandalMMitraR.Effect of pre-cold rolling on the evolution of microstructure, microtexture, and mechanical properties of the mushy state rolled in-situ Al–4.5Cu–5TiB2 composite. Mater Charact. 2018;146:267–278. doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2018.10.010.
89.
SavaşÖKayikciRFiçiciFProduction of functionally graded SiC/Al–Cu–Mg composite by centrifugal casting. Sci Eng Compos Mater. 2016;23:155–159. doi:10.1515/secm-2014-0141.
90.
VajdASamadiA.Optimization of centrifugal casting parameters to produce the functionally graded Al–15wt%Mg2Si composites with higher tensile properties. Int J Met. 2020;14:937–948. doi:10.1007/s40962-019-00394-1.
91.
YousefiMDoostmohammadiH.Microstructural evolution and solidification behavior of functionally graded In situ Al–Cr composites during centrifugal casting. Int J Met. 2020; doi:10.1007/s40962-020-00499-y.
92.
WatanabeYHattoriYSatoH.Distribution of microstructure and cooling rate in Al–Al2Cu functionally graded materials fabricated by a centrifugal method. J Mater Process Technol. 2015;221:197–204. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.01.028.
93.
JayakumarEJacobJCRajanTPDProcessing and characterization of functionally graded aluminum (A319)—SiCp metallic composites by centrifugal casting technique. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci. 2016;47:4306–4315. doi:10.1007/s11661-016-3558-8.
94.
RadhikaNSamM.Enhancement of tribological performance of centrifuge cast functionally graded Cu–10Sn–5Ni alloy with ceramic reinforcements. J Mater Res Technol. 2019;8:3415–3423. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.007.
95.
LinXLiuCXiaoH.Fabrication of Al–Si–Mg functionally graded materials tube reinforced with in situ Si/Mg2Si particles by centrifugal casting. Compos Part B Eng. 2013;45:8–21. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.09.001.
96.
KanWHAlbinoCDias-da-CostaDMicrostructure characterisation and mechanical properties of a functionally-graded NbC/high chromium white cast iron composite. Mater Charact. 2018;136:196–205. doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2017.12.020.
97.
RamSCChattopadhyayKChakrabartyI.High temperature tensile properties of centrifugally cast in-situ Al-Mg2Si functionally graded composites for automotive cylinder block liners. J Alloys Compd. 2017;724:84–97. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.06.306.
98.
RadhikaNRaghuR.Experimental investigation on abrasive wear behavior of functionally graded aluminum composite. J Tribol. 2015;137:1–7. doi:10.1115/1.4029941.
99.
JojithRRadhikaN.Investigation of mechanical and tribological behaviour of heat-treated functionally graded Al-7Si/B4C composite. Silicon. 2020;12:2073–2085. doi:10.1007/s12633-019-00294-3.
100.
JojithRRadhikaN.Enhancement of mechanical and sliding wear properties of functionally graded Al–12Si–Cu composites. Mater Res Express. 2019;6: 096448, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab1039.
101.
PrabhuTR.Processing and properties evaluation of functionally continuous graded 7075 Al alloy/SiC composites. Arch Civ Mech Eng. 2017;17:20–31. doi:10.1016/j.acme.2016.08.004.
102.
JayakumarEPraveenAPRajanTPDStudies on tribological characteristics of centrifugally cast SiCp-reinforced functionally graded A319 aluminium matrix composites. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2018;71:2741–2748. doi:10.1007/s12666-018-1442-5.
103.
UthayakumarMBabuKVKumaranSTStudy on the machining of Al–SiC functionally graded metal matrix composite using die-sinking EDM. Part Sci Technol. 2019;37:103–109. doi:10.1080/02726351.2017.1346020.
104.
RadhikaNRaghuR.The mechanical properties and abrasive wear behavior of functionally graded aluminum/AlB2 composites produced by centrifugal casting. Part Sci Technol. 2017;35:575–582. doi:10.1080/02726351.2016.1184728.
105.
RadhikaN.Mechanical properties and abrasive wear behaviour of functionally graded Al–Si12Cu/Al2O3 metal matrix composite. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2017;70:145–157. doi:10.1007/s12666-016-0870-3.
106.
SalehBIAhmedMH.Development of functionally graded tubes based on pure Al/Al2O3 metal matrix composites manufactured by centrifugal casting for automotive applications. Met Mater Int. 2020;26:1430–1440. doi:10.1007/s12540-019-00391-3.
107.
RadhikaNRaghuR.Characterization of mechanical properties and three-body abrasive wear of functionally graded aluminum LM25/titanium carbide metal matrix composite: mechanische eigenschaften und dreikörperverschleiß von funktionell gradierten aluminium LM25/titankarbid-M. Materwiss Werksttech. 2017;48:882–892. doi:10.1002/mawe.201700559.
108.
JojithRAkhilRCRadhikaN.Characterization and property analysis of heat-treated functionally graded Al8Si3Cu alloy and TiC reinforced composite. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2021;74:459–471. doi:10.1007/s12666-020-02131-3.
109.
AmbigaiRPrabhuS.Characterization and mechanical analysis of functionally graded Al–Si3N4 composites through centrifugal process. J Mater Eng Perform. 2021; doi:10.1007/s11665-021-05963-2.
110.
JojithRRadhikaN.Fabrication of LM 25/WC functionally graded composite for automotive applications and investigation of its mechanical and wear properties. J Brazilian Soc Mech Sci Eng. 2018;40:1–13. doi:10.1007/s40430-018-1217-2.
111.
RadhikaNRaghuR.Abrasive wear behavior of monolithic alloy, homogeneous and functionally graded aluminum (LM25/AlN and LM25/SiO2) composites. Part Sci Technol. 2019;37:10–20. doi:10.1080/02726351.2016.1199074.
112.
SamMRadhikaN.Development of functionally graded Cu–Sn–Ni/Al2O3 composite for bearing applications and investigation of its mechanical and wear behavior. Part Sci Technol. 2019;37:220–231. doi:10.1080/02726351.2017.1364312.
113.
RadhikaNThirumaliniSShivashankarA.Investigation on mechanical and adhesive wear behavior of centrifugally cast functionally graded copper/SiC metal matrix composite. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2018;71:1311–1322. doi:10.1007/s12666-017-1246-z.
114.
RadhikaNSamM.Comparative study between tribological performance of carbide reinforced functionally graded copper composite and its alloy under the influence of process parameters. Mater Res Express. 2019;6: 115522, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab1a98.
115.
RadhikaNThirumaliniSJojithR.Development and properties of centrifugally cast silicon nitride reinforced functionally graded copper matrix composite. Silicon. 2019;11:2103–2116. doi:10.1007/s12633-018-0030-y.
116.
RadhikaNReghunathRSamM.Improvement of mechanical and tribological properties of centrifugally cast functionally graded copper for bearing applications. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci. 2019;233:3208–3219. doi:10.1177/0954406218805508.
117.
KumarRAKumarRKRadhikaN.Mechanical and wear properties of functionally graded Cu-11Ni–4Si/ graphite composite. Silicon. 2019;11:2613–2624. doi:10.1007/s12633-018-0048-1.
118.
JojithRRadhikaNVipinU.Sliding wear studies on heat-treated functionally graded Cu–Ni–Si/TiC composite. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2019;72:719–731. doi:10.1007/s12666-018-1523-5.
119.
RadhikaNJeffersonJA.Studies on mechanical and abrasive wear properties of Cu–Ni–Si/Si3N4 functionally graded composite. Silicon. 2019;11:627–641. doi:10.1007/s12633-018-9957-2.
120.
SamMRadhikaN.Microstructural, mechanical and tribological analysis of functionally graded copper composite. Int J Cast Met Res. 2020;33:123–133. doi:10.1080/13640461.2020.1769318.
121.
FathiRMaASalehBInvestigation on mechanical properties and wear performance of functionally graded AZ91-SiCp composites via centrifugal casting. Mater Today Commun. 2020;24:101169), doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101169.
122.
SalehBJiangJFathiRInfluence of gradient structure on wear characteristics of centrifugally cast functionally graded magnesium matrix composites for automotive applications. Arch Civ Mech Eng. 2021;21:1–23. doi:10.1007/s43452-020-00168-1.
123.
SavaşÖ. Application of Taguchi’s method to evaluate abrasive wear behavior of functionally graded aluminum based composite. Mater Today Commun. 2020;23, doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.100920.
124.
SavaşÖ. Investigation of production and abrasive wear behavior of functionally graded TiB2/Al and TiB2/Al–4Cu composites. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2020;73:543–553. doi:10.1007/s12666-020-01870-7.
125.
SavaşÖ. Fabrication and characterization of TiB2-reinforced functionally graded aluminum matrix material. Ind Lubr Tribol. 2020;72:1147–1152. doi:10.1108/ILT-12-2019-0538.
126.
ArshaAGJayakumarERajanTPDDesign and fabrication of functionally graded in-situ aluminium composites for automotive pistons. Mater Des. 2015;88:1201–1209. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.09.099.
127.
SaiyathibrahimASubramanianRSamuelCSJ.Processing and properties evaluation of centrifugally cast in-situ functionally graded composites reinforced with Al3Ni and Si particles. Mater Res Express. 2019;6: 1165a8, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab4c9f.
128.
SavaşÖ. The production and properties of Al3Ti reinforced functionally graded aluminum matrix composites produced by the centrifugal casting method. Mater Res Express. 2019;6: 126532, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab562c.
129.
HuangCYChenYL.Design and impact resistant analysis of functionally graded Al2O3-ZrO2 ceramic composite. Mater Des. 2016;91:294–305. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.11.091.
130.
HuangCYChenYL.Effect of mechanical properties on the ballistic resistance capability of Al2O3–ZrO2 functionally graded materials. Ceram Int. 2016;42:12946–12955. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.05.067.
131.
MarkovićSLukićMJŠkapinSDDesigning, fabrication and characterization of nanostructured functionally graded HAp/BCP ceramics. Ceram Int. 2015;41:2654–2667. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2014.10.079.
132.
BesisaDHAEwaisEMM.Investigation of mechanical strength of the functionally graded zirconia-mullite/alumina ceramics tailored for high temperature applications. Mater Res Express. 2019;6, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab177e.
133.
XiaoYFengKChenHFabrication and micro-structure of a multilayer functionally graded (WC–Co)–Ni composite. J Alloys Compd. 2015;631:77–81. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.01.092.
134.
YuanYFuLLiJ.Effects of WC particle size and Co content on the graded structure in functionally gradient WC-Co composites. MATEC Web Conf. 2016;67: 06012, doi:10.1051/matecconf/20166706012.
135.
KeZZhengYGaoLFabrication of functionally graded WC–Co cemented carbides with plate-like WC grains. Powder Metall Met Ceram. 2019;58:463–468. doi:10.1007/s11106-019-00096-7.
136.
VijaySRaoCS.Dry slide wear behavior of 601AC/B4C selective layered functionally graded material with particulate Ni–P coating. Mater Res Express. 2019;6, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab6897.
137.
VijaySChSR.A comparative investigation of hardness and compression strength of nickel coated B4C reinforced 601AC/201AC selective layered functionally graded materials. Mater Res Express. 2019;7, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab611a.
138.
LatiffMIANuruzzamanDMBasriSPreparation and characterization of 6-layered functionally graded nickel-alumina (Ni–Al2O3) composites. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2018;342, doi:10.1088/1757-899X/342/1/012063.
139.
KamaruzamanFFNuruzzamanDMChowdhuryMACharacterisation of four-layered Al–Al2O3 functionally graded material prepared through powder metallurgy and pressureless sintering. Int J Mater Prod Technol. 2019;59:48–62. doi:10.1504/IJMPT.2019.100832.
140.
SrinivasPNSBabu PRBalakrishnaB.Microstructural, mechanical and tribological characterization on the Al based functionally graded material fabricated powder metallurgy. Mater Res Express. 2020;7, doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab6f41.
141.
MahdavinejadRAKhajeafzaliM.Fabrication and experimental investigation of arc erosion behavior in W/Cu functionally graded composites. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B J Eng Manuf. 2021;235:394–405. doi:10.1177/0954405420964013.
ErdemirFCanakciAVarolT.Microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of functionally graded Al2024/SiC composites prepared by powder metallurgy techniques. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China (English Ed. 2015;25:3569–3577. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(15)63996-6.
144.
ErdemirFCanakciAVarolTCorrosion and wear behavior of functionally graded Al2024/SiC composites produced by hot pressing and consolidation. J Alloys Compd. 2015;644:589–596. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.04.216.
145.
WangZGLiCPWangHYWear and corrosion behavior of functionally graded nano-SiC/2014Al composites produced by powder metallurgy. J Mater Eng Perform. 2017;26:729–735. doi:10.1007/s11665-016-2466-9.
146.
WuTHuYWangSEffect of SiC content and interlayer difference on microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of functionally graded 6061Al/SiCp composites. Appl Phys A Mater Sci Process. 2020;126:1–14. doi:10.1007/s00339-020-03848-0.
147.
AcarEAydınM.Damping behavior of Al/SiC functionally graded and metal matrix composites. J Asian Ceram Soc. 2021;9:578–585. doi:10.1080/21870764.2021.1904606.
SunJZhaoJGongFDesign, fabrication and characterization of multi-layer graphene reinforced nanostructured functionally graded cemented carbides. J Alloys Compd. 2018;750:972–979. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.04.108.
150.
Strojny-NędzaAPietrzakKWęglewskiW.The influence of Al2O3 powder morphology on the properties of Cu-Al2O3 composites designed for functionally graded materials (FGM). J Mater Eng Perform. 2016;25:3173–3184. doi:10.1007/s11665-016-2204-3.
151.
Satish KumarTKrishna KumarKShaliniSSynthesis and characterization of functionally graded Al–6Cr–Y2O3 composites. Arch Metall Mater. 2018;63:1649–1655. doi:10.24425/amm.2018.125089.
152.
CarvalhoOBuciumeanuMMadeiraSOptimization of AlSi-CNTs functionally graded material composites for engine piston rings. Mater Des. 2015;80:163–173. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.05.018.
153.
TianPFengYXiaMHot-pressed sintering of W/Cu functionally graded materials prepared from copper-coated tungsten powders. Rare Met. 2020;39:1229–1236. doi:10.1007/s12598-017-0939-0.
154.
ZhengGHuangZYuQMicrostructural and mechanical properties of TiCX–Ni3(Al,Ti)/Ni functionally graded composites fabricated from Ti3AlC2 and Ni powders. Met Mater Int. 2020;26:905–913. doi:10.1007/s12540-019-00357-5.
155.
YuQHuangZZhengGThermal shock behavior of a novel TiCx–Ni3(Al,Ti)/Ni functionally graded composite. Met Mater Int. 2020;3, doi:10.1007/s12540-020-00836-0.
156.
LiuGLiKZhangJIn-situ preparation of TiB2–TiB–Ti functionally graded materials by improved sintering process. J Wuhan Univ Technol Mater Sci Ed. 2015;30:710–714. doi:10.1007/s11595-015-1216-4.
157.
LiXLiuYWeiWInfluence of NbC and VC on microstructures and mechanical properties of WC-Co functionally graded cemented carbides. Mater Des. 2016;90:562–567. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.156.
158.
ZhouXXuZWangKOne-step sinter-HIP method for preparation of functionally graded cemented carbide with ultrafine grains. Ceram Int. 2016;42:5362–5367. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.12.069.
159.
OghbaeiMMirzaeeO.Microwave versus conventional sintering: a review of fundamentals, advantages and applications. J Alloys Compd. 2010;494:175–189. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.01.068.
160.
ZhouCLiLWangJA novel approach for fabrication of functionally graded W/Cu composites via microwave processing. J Alloys Compd. 2018;743:383–387. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.372.
161.
ChenWChenPLiJFunctionally graded W–Cu materials prepared from Cu-coated W powders by microwave sintering. J Mater Eng Perform. 2019;28:6135–6144. doi:10.1007/s11665-019-04321-7.
162.
TangSWangRLiuPPreparation of WC–TiC–Ni3Al–CaF2 functionally graded self-lubricating tool material by microwave sintering and its cutting performance. High Temp Mater Process. 2020;39:45–53. doi:10.1515/htmp-2020-0004.
163.
TangSLiuDLiPMicrostructure and mechanical properties of functionally gradient cemented carbides fabricated by microwave heating nitriding sintering. Int J Refract Met Hard Mater. 2016;58:137–142. doi:10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2016.04.013.
164.
TangSLiPLiuDCutting performance of a functionally graded cemented carbide tool prepared by microwave heating and nitriding sintering. High Temp Mater Process. 2019;38:582–589. doi:10.1515/htmp-2019-0011.
165.
LeeSHTanakaHKagawaY.Spark plasma sintering and pressureless sintering of SiC using aluminum borocarbide additives. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2009;29:2087–2095. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.12.006.
166.
SahebNIqbalZKhalilASpark plasma sintering of metals and metal matrix nanocomposites: a review. J Nanomater. 2012;2012: 1–13, doi:10.1155/2012/983470.
167.
YuJHWangCBShenQPreparation and properties of Sip/Al composites by spark plasma sintering. Mater Des. 2012;41:198–202. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2012.05.007.
168.
SharmaNAlamSNRayBC.Fundamentals of spark plasma sintering (SPS): an ideal processing technique for fabrication of metal matrix nanocomposites. In: CavaliereP, editor. Spark plasma sinter. mater. adv. process. appl. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 21–59. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05327-7.
169.
LugininaMAngioniDMontinaroSHydroxyapatite/bioactive glass functionally graded materials (FGM) for bone tissue engineering. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2020;40:4623–4634. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.05.061.
170.
BertoleteMBarbosaPAde RossiWMechanical characterisation and machining evaluation of ceramic cutting tools functionally graded with six layers. Ceram Int. 2020;46:15137–15145. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.03.048.
171.
TsukamotoH.Microstructure and indentation properties of ZrO2/Ti functionally graded materials fabricated by spark plasma sintering. Mater Sci Eng A. 2015;640:338–349. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2015.06.005.
172.
ZhangYLiZLiCTemperature gradient field sintering of Ti–TiB–TiB2 functionally graded material. Ceram Int. 2015;41:13844–9. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.08.070.
173.
HonmaTTatamiJ.Spark plasma sintering of functionally graded SiO2/Mo laminated layer material. Int J Appl Ceram Technol. 2016;13:50–55. doi:10.1111/ijac.12415.
174.
MirazimiJAbachiPPurazrangK.Spark plasma sintering of ultrafine YSZ reinforced Cu matrix functionally graded composite. Acta Metall Sin (English Lett). 2016;29:1169–1176. doi:10.1007/s40195-016-0512-0.
175.
MadecCLe GalletSSalesseBAlumina-titanium functionally graded composites produced by spark plasma sintering. J Mater Process Technol. 2018;254:277–282. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.11.004.
176.
FujiiTTohgoKIwaoMFracture toughness distribution of alumina-titanium functionally graded materials fabricated by spark plasma sintering. J Alloys Compd. 2018;766:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.06.304.
177.
PariharRSGangi SettiSSahuRK.Preliminary investigation on development of functionally graded cemented tungsten carbide with solid lubricant via ball milling and spark plasma sintering. J Compos Mater. 2018;52:1363–1377. doi:10.1177/0021998317724217.
178.
PariharRSGangi SettiSSahuRK.Effect of sintering parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of self-lubricating functionally graded cemented tungsten carbide. J Manuf Process. 2019;45:498–508. doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.07.025.
179.
OmidiNJabbariAHSedighiM.Mechanical and microstructural properties of titanium/hydroxyapatite functionally graded material fabricated by spark plasma sintering. Powder Metall. 2018;61:417–427. doi:10.1080/00325899.2018.1535391.
180.
AmirjanMBozorgM.Fabrication and properties of Cu-Al2O3 functionally graded nanocomposites prepared by spark plasma sintering: the effect of copper particle size and reinforcement content. Mater Res Express. 2019;6: 105011 doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab34c5.
181.
ZhongZZhangBJinYDesign and anti-penetration performance of TiB/Ti system functionally graded material armor fabricated by SPS combined with tape casting. Ceram Int. 2020;46:28244–28249. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.07.325.
182.
WangLZhangCAgarwalAFabrication and characterization of functionally graded materials Ta10W-YSZ by SPS. Int J Refract Met Hard Mater. 2020;93:105348), doi:10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2020.105348.
183.
WangQGeYKuangJEffects of additives on the synthesis of spherical aluminum nitride granules by carbothermal reduction-nitridation process. J Alloys Compd. 2017;696:220–225. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.11.252.
184.
WuCShiRZhangJSynthesis of functionally graded AA7075-B4C composite with multi-level gradient structure. Ceram Int. 2019;45:7761–7766. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.01.080.
185.
AutissierERichouMMinierLElaboration and thermomechanical characterization of W/Cu functionally graded materials produced by spark plasma sintering for plasma facing components. Fusion Eng Des. 2015;98–99:1929–1932. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2015.05.066.
186.
TanCWangGJiLInvestigation on 316L/W functionally graded materials fabricated by mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering. J Nucl Mater. 2016;469:32–38. doi:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.11.024.
187.
TanCWangCWangSInvestigation on 316L/316L-50W/W plate functionally graded materials fabricated by spark plasma sintering. Fusion Eng Des. 2017;125:171–177. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2017.08.001.
188.
YusefiAParvinN.Fabrication of three layered W–Cu functionally graded composite via spark plasma sintering. Fusion Eng Des. 2017;114:196–202. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2016.11.013.
189.
PillariLKBakshiSRChaudhuriPFabrication of W–Cu functionally graded composites using high energy ball milling and spark plasma sintering for plasma facing components. Adv Powder Technol. 2020;31:3657–3666. doi:10.1016/j.apt.2020.07.015.
190.
HeuerSLienigTMohrAUltra-fast sintered functionally graded Fe/W composites for the first wall of future fusion reactors. Compos Part B Eng. 2019;164:205–214. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.078.
191.
NgoTDKashaniAImbalzanoGAdditive manufacturing (3D printing): a review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;143:172–196. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.02.012.
192.
ZhangBJaiswalPRaiRAdditive manufacturing of functionally graded material objects: a review. J Comput Inf Sci Eng. 2018;18, doi:10.1115/1.4039683.
ReichardtAShapiroAAOtisRAdvances in additive manufacturing of metal-based functionally graded materials. Int Mater Rev. 2020;0:1–29. doi:10.1080/09506608.2019.1709354.
195.
OyelolaOCrawforthPM’SaoubiRMachining of functionally graded Ti6Al4 V/WC produced by directed energy deposition. Addit Manuf. 2018;24:20–29. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2018.09.007.
ShenCHuaXReidMThermal induced phase evolution of Fe-Fe3Ni functionally graded material fabricated using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process: An in-situ neutron diffraction study. J Alloys Compd. 2020;826:154097.
201.
ZakeriSVippolaMLevänenE.A comprehensive review of the photopolymerization of ceramic resins used in stereolithography. Addit Manuf. 2020;35:101177, doi:10.1016/j.addma.2020.101177.
BartoloPJGasparJ.Metal filled resin for stereolithography metal part. CIRP Ann Manuf Technol. 2008;57:235–238. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2008.03.124.
204.
BartoloPJ, editor. Stereolithography materials, processes and applications. City: Springer; 2011.
205.
ZimbeckWRiceR.Stereolithography of ceramics and metals. IS&T’s 50th Annu. Conf. 1997: 649–655.
206.
MelchelsFFeijenJGrijpmaD.A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering. Biomaterials. 2010;31:6121–6130.
207.
SchwarzerEHoltzhausenSScheithauerUProcess development for additive manufacturing of functionally graded alumina toughened zirconia components intended for medical implant application. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2019;39:522–530. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.09.003.
208.
LiLWangJLinPMicrostructure and mechanical properties of functionally graded TiCp/Ti6Al4 V composite fabricated by laser melting deposition. Ceram Int. 2017;43:16638–16651.
209.
ZhangJZhangYLiWMicrostructure and properties of functionally graded materials Ti6Al4 V/TiC fabricated by direct laser deposition. Rapid Prototyp J. 2018;24:677–687. doi:10.1108/RPJ-12-2016-0215.
210.
LiNLiuWXiongHIn-situ reaction of Ti–Si–C composite powder and formation mechanism of laser deposited Ti6Al4 V/ (TiC + Ti3SiC2) system functionally graded material. Mater Des. 2019;183:108155.
211.
ZhaoKZhangGMaGMicrostructure and mechanical properties of titanium alloy / zirconia functionally graded materials prepared by laser additive manufacturing. J Manuf Process. 2020;56:616–622.
212.
RamakrishnanADindaG.Functionally graded metal matrix composite of haynes 282 and SiC fabricated by laser metal deposition. Mater Des. 2019;179:107877.
213.
YanLChenXZhangYFabrication of functionally graded Ti and γ-TiAl by laser metal deposition. Jom. 2017;69:2756–2761. doi:10.1007/s11837-017-2582-5.
214.
BobbioLDBocklundBOtisRCharacterization of a functionally graded material of Ti–6Al–4 V to 304L stainless steel with an intermediate V section. J Alloys Compd. 2018;742:1031–1036. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.156.
ZhangXChenYLiouF.Fabrication of SS316L-IN625 functionally graded materials by powder-fed directed energy deposition. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2019;24:504–516.
217.
ChenBSuYSieZDevelopment and characterization of 316L/Inconel625 functionally graded material fabricated by laser direct metal deposition. Opt Laser Technol. 2020;123:105916.
218.
SuYChenBTanCInfluence of composition gradient variation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 316 L/Inconel718 functionally graded material fabricated by laser additive manufacturing. J Mater Process Technol. 2020;283, doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116702.
219.
TanCZhouKKuangT.Selective laser melting of tungsten-copper functionally graded material. Mater Lett. 2019;237:328–331. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.127.
220.
KellyJPElmerJWRyersonFJDirected energy deposition additive manufacturing of functionally graded Al-W composites. Addit Manuf. 2021;39:101845, doi:10.1016/j.addma.2021.101845.
221.
WangJEastDMorozovEVMicrostructure and hardness variation of additively manufactured Ti–Ni–C functionally graded composites. J Alloys Compd. 2021;865:158976, doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.158976.
222.
RatheeSMaheshwariSSiddiqueeANA review of recent progress in solid state fabrication of composites and functionally graded systems Via friction stir processing. Crit Rev Solid State Mater Sci. 2018;43:334–366. doi:10.1080/10408436.2017.1358146.
223.
SalehiMFarnoushHHeydarianAImprovement of mechanical properties in the functionally graded aluminum matrix nanocomposites fabricated via a novel multistep friction stir processing. Metall Mater Trans B Process Metall Mater Process Sci. 2015;46:20–29. doi:10.1007/s11663-014-0188-7.
224.
SaadatmandMMohandesiJA.Optimization of mechanical and wear properties of functionally graded Al6061/SiC nanocomposites produced by friction stir processing (FSP). Acta Metall Sin (English Lett). 2015;28:584–590. doi:10.1007/s40195-015-0235-7.
225.
PatelVBadhekaVLiWHybrid friction stir processing with active cooling approach to enhance superplastic behavior of AA7075 aluminum alloy. Arch Civ Mech Eng. 2019;19:1368–1380. doi:10.1016/j.acme.2019.08.007.
226.
BikkinaVTalasilaSRAdepuK.Characterization of aluminum based functionally graded composites developed via friction stir processing. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China (English Ed). 2020;30:1743–1755. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(20)65335-3.
227.
CaiYWangNChengLElectrical conductivity and electromagnetic shielding properties of Ti3SiC2/SiC functionally graded materials prepared by positioning impregnation. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2019;39:3643–3650. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.05.039.
228.
ZygmuntowiczJSzymańskaJWachowskiMNew Al2O3–Cu–Ni functionally graded composites manufactured using the centrifugal slip casting. Int J Appl Ceram Technol. 2020;17:2580–2590. doi:10.1111/ijac.13594.
229.
KunimineTShibuyaMSatoHFabrication of copper/diamond functionally graded materials for grinding wheels by centrifugal sintered-casting. J Mater Process Technol. 2015;217:294–301. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.11.020.
230.
BehrensBABohrD.Manufacturing of functionally graded metal matrix composite materials by segregation. Int J Mater Res. 2018;109:373–380. doi:10.3139/146.111619.
231.
BahramiAPech-CanulMIGutierrezCAEffect of rice-husk ash on properties of laminated and functionally graded Al/SiC composites by one-step pressureless infiltration. J Alloys Compd. 2015;644:256–266. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.04.194.
232.
VermaNVettivelSC.Characterization and experimental analysis of boron carbide and rice husk ash reinforced AA7075 aluminium alloy hybrid composite. J Alloys Compd. 2018;741:981–998. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.185.
233.
PrasadDKrishnaA.Fabrication and characterization of A356.2-rice husk ash composite using stir casting technique. Int J Sci Eng Ring2010;2:7603–7608.
234.
ParveezBMalequeMAJamalNA.Influence of agro-based reinforcements on the properties of aluminum matrix composites: a systematic review. J Mater Sci. 2021;56:16195–16222. doi:10.1007/s10853-021-06305-2.
235.
SoltaniNBahramiAPech-CanulMIReview on the physicochemical treatments of rice husk for production of advanced materials. Chem Eng J. 2015;264:899–935. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2014.11.056.
236.
LeibholzRRobertMHLeibholzHDevelopment of functionally graded nodular cast iron reinforced with recycled WC particles. Conf Proc Soc Exp Mech Ser. 2017;7:241–249. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41766-0_29.
237.
YousefiMDoostmohammadiH.Microstructure characterization and formation mechanism of functionally graded Al-TiAl3 insitu composite by liquid-solid interaction. J Alloys Compd. 2018;766:721–728. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.07.011.
238.
KimDParkKKimKCarbon nanotubes-reinforced aluminum alloy functionally graded materials fabricated by powder extrusion process. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;745:379–389. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2018.12.128.
239.
ChenXSunWLiXExperimental and numerical studies on W–Cu functionally graded materials produced by explosive compaction–welding sintering. Fusion Eng Des. 2018;137:349–357. doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.10.016.
240.
YangGLYuQFengDKFabrication of functionally graded W (Mo)–Cu composites by explosive consolidation fabrication of functionally graded W (Mo)–Cu composites by explosive consolidation. Mater Res Innov. 2015;19:45–49. doi:10.1179/1432891715Z.0000000001366.
241.
ZhangYNiWLiY.Effect of siliconizing temperature on microstructure and phase constitution of Mo–MoSi2 functionally graded materials. Ceram Int. 2018;44:11166–11171. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.03.136.
242.
RoudiniGTavangarRWeberLInfluence of reinforcement contiguity on the thermal expansion of alumina particle reinforced aluminium composites. Int J Mater Res. 2010;101:1113–1120.
243.
HuberTDegischerHPLefrancGThermal expansion studies on aluminium-matrix composites with different reinforcement architecture of SiC particles. Compos Sci Technol. 2006;66:2206–2217. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.12.012.
244.
LichtenbergKWeidenmannKA.Effect of reinforcement size and orientation on the thermal expansion behavior of metallic glass reinforced metal matrix composites produced by gas pressure infiltration. Thermochim Acta. 2017;654:85–92. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2017.05.010.
245.
RoySNagelAWeidenmannKA.Anisotropic thermal expansion behavior of an interpenetrating metal/ceramic composite. Thermochim Acta. 2020;684:178488), doi:10.1016/j.tca.2019.178488.
246.
MehditabarARahimiGHVahdatSE.Mechanical properties of Al 25 wt.% Cu functionally graded material. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron. 2019;26:327–337. doi:10.1515/secm-2019-0014.
247.
MehditabarARahimiGHKrolMEffect of heat treatment on the characterizations of functionally graded Al/Al2Cu fabricated by horizontal centrifugal casting. Int J Met. 2020;14:962–976. doi:10.1007/s40962-019-00401-5.
248.
HustJGLankfordAB.Thermal conductivity of aluminium, copper, iron, and tungsten for temperatures from 1 K to the melting point. Report NBSIR 84-3007, National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce; 1984.
249.
FarahmandSSoorgeeMHMonazzahAH.Evaluating the elastic properties of Al2O3–Al FGMs by longitudinal and transverse ultrasonic bulk waves velocity features. Ceram Int. 2021;47:24906–24915. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.05.217.
250.
AnstisGRChantikulPLawnBIndentation and fracture toughness I. J Am Ceram Soc. 1981;46:533–538.
251.
SchuhCA.Nanoindentation studies of materials. Mater Today. 2006;9:32–40.
252.
HutchingsI.Tribology. 2nd edElsevier Ltd; 2017.
253.
ÜbeyliMBalciESarikanBThe ballistic performance of SiC-AA7075 functionally graded composite produced by powder metallurgy. Mater Des. 2014;56:31–36. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2013.10.092.
254.
GuptaNPrasadVVMadhuVBallistic studies on TiB2-Ti functionally graded armor ceramics. Def Sci J. 2012;62:382–389. doi:10.14429/dsj.62.2666.
255.
ChinESC.Army focused research team on functionally graded armor composites. Mater Sci Eng A. 1999;259(A259):155–161. doi:10.1016/s0921-5093(98)00883-1.
256.
PompeWWorchHEppleMFunctionally graded materials for biomedical applications. Mater Sci Eng A. 2003;362:40–60. doi:10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00580-X.
257.
ThiemeMWietersK-PBergnerFTitanium powder sintering for preparation of a porous functionally graded material destined for orthopaedic implants. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2001;12:225–231. doi:10.1023/A:1008958914818.
258.
LeeB-TKangICGainAKFabrication of pore-gradient Al2O3–ZrO2 sintered bodies by fibrous monolithic process. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2006;26:3525–3530. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2005.12.017.
259.
AkmalMKhalidFAHussainMA.Interfacial diffusion reaction and mechanical characterization of 316L stainless steel-hydroxyapatite functionally graded materials for joint prostheses. Ceram Int. 2015;41:14458–14467. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.07.082.
260.
ChenglinCJingchuanZZhongdaYHydroxyapatite–Ti functionally graded biomaterial fabricated by powder metallurgy. Mater Sci Eng A. 1999;271:95–100. doi:10.1016/S0921-5093(99)00152-5.
261.
TsukadaGSueyoshiHKamibayashiHBending strength of zirconia/porcelain functionally graded materials prepared using spark plasma sintering. J Dent. 2014;42:1569–1576. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2014.09.012.
GhoshKBMukhopadhyayJBasuRN.Functionally graded doped lanthanum cobalt ferrite and ceria-based composite interlayers for advancing the performance stability in solid oxide fuel cell. J Power Sources. 2016;328:15–27. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.106.
264.
VaidyaR. Plasma sprayed functionally graded and layered MoSi2-A12O3 composites for high temperature sensor sheath application, United States: 2001.
265.
WoolleyRJSkinnerSJ.Functionally graded composite La2NiO4+δ and La4Ni3O10−δ solid oxide fuel cell cathodes. Solid State Ionics. 2014;255:1–5. doi:10.1016/j.ssi.2013.11.041.
266.
PintsukGBrüningsSEDöringJEDevelopment of W/Cu-functionally graded materials. Fusion Eng Des. 2003: 66–68:237–240. doi:10.1016/S0920-3796(03)00220-5.
267.
MerkleinMJohannesMLechnerMA review on tailored blanks—production, applications and evaluation. J Mater Process Tech. 2014;214:151–164.
268.
TsudaKIkegayaAIsobeKDevelopment of functionally graded sintered hard materials. Powder Metall. 1996;39:296–300. doi:10.1179/pom.1996.39.4.296.
KonyashinIZaitsevAASidorenkoDOn the mechanism of obtaining functionally graded hardmetals. Mater Lett. 2017;186:142–145. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2016.09.130.
ZhangZLiuZLuJThe sintering mechanism in spark plasma sintering – proof of the occurrence of spark discharge. Scr Mater. 2014;81:56–59. doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2014.03.011.
273.
KalaiselvanKDinaharanI.Routes for the joining of metal matrix composite materials. Ref Modul Mater Sci Mater Eng. 2021;2:652–670. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.11899-5.
274.
Bupesh RajaVKGuptaM.Joining of metal matrix composites. Ref Modul Mater Sci Mater Eng. 2021;1:502–511. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00004-5.
275.
AnandanNRamuluM.Study of machining induced surface defects and its effect on fatigue performance of AZ91/15%SiCp metal matrix composite. J Magnes Alloy. 2020;8:387–395.
276.
WuQXuWZhangL.Machining of particulate-reinforced metal matrix composites: An investigation into the chip formation and subsurface damage. J Mater Process Technol. 2019;274:116315.
277.
KarCSurekhaBJenaHStudy of influence of process parameters in electric discharge machining of aluminum – Red Mud metal matrix composite. Procedia Manuf. 2018;20: 392–399.
278.
SalurEAslanAKuntogluMExperimental study and analysis of machinability characteristics of metal matrix composites during drilling. Compos Part B Eng. 2019;166:401–413.
279.
KumarKSharmaABhartiAMachining response in turning stir cast alumininum alloy based metal matrix composite. Mater Today Proc. 2019;18:2619–2624.
280.
BharadwajAVaidyaAShekhawatS.Machining of aluminium metal matrix composite: a review. Mater Today Proc. 2020;21:1396–1402.
281.
SinchukYPiatRRoySInelastic behavior of the single domain of metal-ceramic composites with lamellar microstructure. Pamm. 2011;11:285–286. doi:10.1002/pamm.201110134.
282.
ZieglerTNeubrandARoySElastic constants of metal/ceramic composites with lamellar microstructures: finite element modelling and ultrasonic experiments. Compos Sci Technol. 2009;69:620–626. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.12.009.
283.
SinchukYRoySGibmeierJNumerical study of internal load transfer in metal/ceramic composites based on freeze-cast ceramic preforms and experimental validation. Mater Sci Eng A. 2013;585:10–16. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2013.07.022.
284.
XuX-JMengJ-M.A model for functionally graded materials. Compos Part B Eng. 2018;145:70–80.
285.
GuptaATalhaM.Recent development in modeling and analysis of functionally graded materials and structures. Prog Aerosp Sci. 2015;79:1–14.
286.
MulianaA.A micromechanical model for predicting thermal properties and thermo-viscoelastic responses of functionally graded materials. Int J Solids Struct. 2009;46:1911–1924.
287.
ZhangLLinQChenFMicromechanical modeling and experimental characterization for the elastoplastic behavior of a functionally graded material. Int J Solids Struct. 2020;206:370–382.
288.
TurantJ.Modeling and numerical evaluation of effective thermal conductivities of fibre functionally graded materials. Compos Struct. 2017;159:240–245.
289.
SchukraftJLohrCWeidenmannKA.2D and 3D in-situ mechanical testing of an interpenetrating metal ceramic composite consisting of a slurry-based ceramic foam and AlSi10Mg. Compos Struct. 2021;263:113742.
290.
RoySGibmeierJKostovVInternal load transfer and damage evolution in a 3D interpenetrating metal / ceramic composite. Mater Sci Eng A. 2012;551(A551):272–279.
291.
RoySGibmeierJWannerA.In situ study of internal load transfer In a novel metal/ceramic composite exhibiting lamellar microstructure using energy dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Adv Eng Mater. 2009;11:471–477. doi:10.1002/adem.200800352.
292.
RoySGibmeierJKostovVInternal load transfer in a metal matrix composite with a three-dimensional interpenetrating structure. Acta Mater. 2011;59:1424–1435. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.11.004.
293.
HellierC.Handbook of nondestructive evaluation. New York (NY): McGraw-Hill; 2003.
294.
ShullPJ.Nondestructive evaluation: theory, techniques and applications. New York (NY): Marcel Dekker Inc; 2001.
