With the development of graphene research, the three-dimensional graphene monolith (3DGM), which can be prepared by the chemical vapour deposition method (CVD-3DGM) and the self-assembly of reduced graphene oxide nanosheets (RGO-3DGM), has drawn increasing attention because of its properties and application prospects that are better than those of two-dimensional graphene nanosheets. By utilising its excellent electrical property, large BET area and favourable mechanical strength, some research findings on the 3DGM-assisted thermal interface materials, conductive polymers and films, dye-sensitised solar cells and supercapacitors have been reported. In this perspective, we review recent progress in the synthesis and application of 3DGM-based composites and devices. In particular, the advantages of the CVD-3DGM are highlighted after comparing the reports, and the specific reasons are analysed and discussed. Finally, the probable directions of development, research focus and corresponding challenges for the preparation and application of the CVD-3DGM in the future are proposed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ZhangYTangTTGiritCet al.Direct observation of a widely tunable band gap in bilayer graphene. Nature. 2009;459(7248):820–823.
2.
SeolJHJoIMooreALet al.Two-dimensional phonon transport in supported graphene. Science. 2010;328(5975):213–216.
3.
AllenMJTungVCKanerRB.Honeycomb carbon: a review of graphene. Chem Rev.2010;110(1):132–145.
4.
GeimAK.Graphene: status and prospects. Science. 2009;324(5934):1530–1534.
5.
DreyerDRParkSBielawskiCWet al.The chemistry of graphene oxide is discussed in this critical review. Chem Soc Rev.2010;39(1):228–240.
6.
NovoselovKSGeimAKMorozovSVet al.Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science. 2004;306(5696):666–669.
7.
AvourisPDimitrakopoulosC.Graphene: synthesis and applications. Mater Today. 2012;15(3):86–97.
8.
MishraNBoeckJMottaNet al.Graphene growth on silicon carbide: a review. Phys Status Solidi A. 2016;213(9):2277–2289.
9.
MuñozRAleixandreCG.Review of CVD synthesis of graphene. Chem Vap Depos. 2013;19(10-12):297–322.
10.
TourJM.Top-down versus bottom-up fabrication of graphene-based electronics. Chem Mater.2014;26(1):163–171.
11.
LeeHCLiuWWChaiSPet al.Synthesis of single-layer graphene: a review of recent development. Procedia Chem.2016;19:916–921.
12.
ChoiWLahiriISeelaboyinaRet al.Synthesis of graphene and its applications: a review. Crit Rev Solid State Mater.2010;35:52–71.
13.
BaiHLiCShiG.Functional composite materials based on chemically converted graphene. Adv Mater.2011;23:1089–1115.
14.
KamatPV.Graphene-based nanoassemblies for energy conversion. J Phys Chem Lett.2011;2(3):242–251.
15.
ChenJLiCShiG.Graphene materials for electrochemical capacitors. J Phys Chem Lett.2013;4(8):1244–1253.
16.
WeiLChenZZhengLJet al.Self-assembled 3D graphene monolith from solution. J Phys Chem Lett.2015;6(4):658–668.
17.
LuoYYZhaoPFYangQet al.Fabrication of conductive elastic nanocomposites via framing intake interconnected graphene networks. Compos Sci Technol.2014;100(21):143–151.
18.
ZengZYHuangXYinZYet al.Fabrication of graphene nanomesh by using an anodic aluminum oxide membrane as a template. Adv Mater.2012;24(30):4138–4142.
19.
KyungAMJinwooPJungaRet al.Polar oxide substrates for graphene growth: a first-principles investigation of graphene on MgO(111). Curr Appl Phys.2013;13(5):803–807.
20.
GaddamSBjelkevigCDowbenPAet al.Direct graphene growth on MgO: origin of the band gap. Phys Condens Mater.2011;23(7):072204–072207.
21.
LiCShiGQ.Functional gels based on chemically modified graphenes. Adv Mater.2014;26(24):3992–4012.
22.
MaioAFucarinoRKhatibiRet al.A novel approach to prevent graphene oxide re-aggregation during the melt compounding with polymers. Compos Sci Technol.2015;119:131–137.
23.
YinSYNiuZQChenXD.Assembly of graphene sheets into 3D macroscopic structures. Small. 2012;8(16):2458–2463.
24.
NardecchiaSCarriazoDFerrerMLet al.Three dimensional macroporous architectures and aerogels built of carbon nanotubes and/or graphene: synthesis and applications. Chem Soc Rev.2013;42(2):794–830.
ZhouGJYeZKShiWWet al.Applications of three dimensional graphene and its composite materials. Prog Chem.2014;26(6):950–960.
27.
CaoXHYinZYZhangH.Three-dimensional graphene materials: preparation, structures and application in supercapacitors. Energy Environ Sci.2014;7(6):1850–1865.
28.
ZhaoZFWangXBZhangCet al.Three-dimensional graphene-based hydrogel/aerogel materials. Rev Adv Mater Sci.2014;36(2):137–151.
29.
LvRTCruzSETerronesM.Building complex hybrid carbon architectures by covalent interconnections: graphene–nanotube hybrids and more. ACS Nano. 2014;8(5):4061–4069.
30.
ChenWFYanLF.In situ self-assembly of mild chemical reduction graphene for three-dimensional architectures. Nanoscale. 2011;3(8):3132–3137.
31.
HuCGZhaiXQLiuLLet al.Spontaneous reduction and assembly of graphene oxide into three-dimensional graphene network on arbitrary conductive substrates. Sci Rep.2013;3(6):2065–2074.
WhitbyRLD.Chemical control of graphene architecture: tailoring shape and properties. ACS Nano. 2014;8(10):9733–9754.
34.
XuYXShiGQ.Assembly of chemically modified graphene: methods and applications. J Mater Chem.2011;21(10):3311–3323.
35.
ShaoJJLvWYangQH.Self-assembly of graphene oxide at interfaces. Adv Mater.2014;26(32):5586–5612.
36.
TangZHShenSLZhuangJet al.Noble-metal-promoted three-dimensional macroassembly of single-layered graphene oxide. Angew Chem Int Ed.2010;49(27):4603–4607.
37.
XuYXShengKXLiCet al.Self-assembled graphene hydrogel via a one-step hydrothermal process. ACS Nano. 2010;4(7):4324–4330.
38.
LvWTaoYNiWet al.One-pot self-assembly of three-dimensional graphene macroassemblies with porous core and layered shell. J Mater Chem.2011;21(33):12352–12357.
39.
ShiJLDuWCYinYXet al.Hydrothermal reduction of three-dimensional graphene oxide for binder-free flexible supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A. 2014;2(28):10830–10834.
40.
PeiSFChengHM.The reduction of graphene oxide. Carbon. 2012;50(9):3210–3228.
41.
ThomasHRDaySPWoodruffWEet al.Deoxygenation of graphene oxide: reduction or cleaning?Chem Mater.2013;25(18):3580–3588.
42.
PeiSFZhaoJPDuJHet al.Direct reduction of graphene oxide films into highly conductive and flexible graphene films by hydrohalic acids. Carbon. 2010;48(15):4466–4474.
43.
AnTGTianZxiangLHet al.Temperature and pH effect on reduction of graphene oxides in aqueous solution. Mater Res Express. 2014;1(3):035605–035608.
44.
JiangXMaYWLiJJet al.Self-assembly of reduced graphene oxide into three-dimensional architecture by divalent ion linkage. J Phys Chem C. 2010;114(51):22462–22465.
45.
YinHJZhaoSLTangHJet al.Three-dimensional graphene/metal oxide nanoparticle hybrids for high-performance capacitive deionization of saline water. Adv Mater.2013;25(43):6270–6276.
ChenZPRenCWGaoLBet al.Three-dimensional flexible and conductive interconnected graphene networks grown by chemical vapor deposition. Nat Mater.2011;10(6):424–428.
49.
YuQKLianJSiriponglertSet al.Graphene segregated on Ni surfaces and transferred to insulators. Appl Phys Lett.2008;93(11):113103–113105.
50.
ReinaAJiaXHoJet al.Large area, few-layer graphene films on arbitrary substrates by chemical vapor deposition. Nano Lett.2009;9(1):30–35.
51.
KimKSZhaoYJangHet al.Large-scale pattern growth of graphene films for stretchable transparent electrodes. Nature. 2009;457(7230):706–710.
52.
LiXCaiWAnJet al.Large-area synthesis of high-quality and uniform graphene films on copper foils. Science. 2009;324(5932):1312–1314.
53.
TangBHuGX.Preparation of few layer three-dimensional graphene networks by CVD for energy storage applications. Chem Vap Depos. 2014;20(1-3):14–22.
54.
TangBGaoHYHuGX.Growth mechanism and influences from kinetic factors on carbon materials with Cu and silica substrates during atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition. J Phys Chem C. 2013;117(47):25175–25184.
55.
YoungRJKinlochLAGongLet al.The mechanics of graphene nanocomposites: a review. Compos Sci Technol.2012;72(12):1459–1476.
56.
ZhuTTengKYShiJet al.A facile assembly of 3D robust double network graphene/polyacrylamide architectures via γ-ray irradiation. Compos Sci Technol.2016;123:276–285.
57.
SunSRGaoLLiuYQ.Enhanced dye-sensitized solar cell using graphene-TiO2 photoanode prepared by heterogeneous coagulation. Appl Phys Lett.2010;96(8):083113–083115.
58.
TsaiTHChiouSCChenSM.Enhancement of dye-sensitized solar cells by using graphene-TiO2 composites as photoelectrochemical working electrode. Int J Electrochem Sci.2011;6(8):3333–3343.
59.
ChoiHKimHHwangSet al.Graphene counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells prepared by electrophoretic deposition. J Mater Chem.2011;21(21):7548–7551.
60.
TangBHuGXShiZX.Three-dimensional graphene network assisted high performance dye sensitized solar cells. J Power Sour. 2013;234(21):60–68.
61.
SunYFCaoYCHuangWQet al.High-performance photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells with graphene modified two-layer construction. Mater Lett.2016;165:178–180.
62.
ChenLCHsuCHChanPSet al.Improving the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells with TiO2/graphene/TiO2 sandwich structure. Nanoscale Res Lett.2014;9(1):380–386.
63.
LimSPPandikumarAHuangNMet al.Reduced graphene oxide–titania nanocomposite-modified photoanode for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. Int Energy Res.2015;39(6):812–824.
64.
JangHDJoEHChangHet al.Incorporation of 3D crumpled graphene in nanostructured TiO2 films for dye-sensitized solar cells. Mater Lett.2015;142:304–307.
65.
ZhuYYMengXCuiHJet al.Graphene frameworks promoted electron transport in quantum dot-sensitized solar cells. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2014;6(16):13833–13840.
66.
YenMYHsiaoMCLiaoSHet al.Preparation of graphene/multi-walled carbon nanotube hybrid and its use as photoanodes of dye-sensitized solar cells. Carbon. 2011;49(11):3597–3606.
67.
ZhiJCuiHLChenAet al.Efficient highly flexible dye sensitized solar cells of three dimensional graphene decorated titanium dioxide nanoparticles on plastic substrate. J Power Sour. 2015;281:404–410.
68.
LeeDHSongDKangYSet al.Three-dimensional monolayer graphene and TiO2 hybrid architectures for high-efficiency electrochemical photovoltaic cells. J Phys Chem C. 2015;119(12):6880–6885.
69.
ZhangDWLiXDLiHBet al.Graphene-based counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Carbon. 2011;49(15):5382–5388.
70.
XueYHLiuJChenHet al.Nitrogen-doped graphene foams as metal-free counter electrodes in high-performance dye-sensitized solar cells. Angew Chem Int Ed.2012;51(48):12124–12127.
71.
AhnHJKimIHYoonJCet al.p-Doped three-dimensional graphene nano-networks superior to platinum as a counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells. Chem Commun.2014;50(19):2412–2415.
72.
WanYJYangWHYuSHet al.Covalent polymer functionalization of graphene for improved dielectric properties and thermal stability of epoxy composites. Compos Sci Technol.2016;122:27–35.
73.
GarimellaSVFleischerASMurthyJYet al.Thermal challenges in next-generation electronic systems. IEEE Trans Compon Packag Technol.2008;31(4):801–815.
74.
NanaCWBirringerR.Effective thermal conductivity of particulate composites with interfacial thermal resistance. J Appl Phys.1997;81:6692–6699.
75.
GallegoMMVerdejoRKhayetMet al.Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes and graphene in epoxy nanofluids and nanocomposites. Nanoscale Res Lett.2011;6(1):610–616.
76.
HuMPoulikakosD.Graphene mediated thermal resistance reduction at strongly coupled interfaces. Int J Heat Mass Transfer. 2013;62(4):205–213.
77.
TangBHuGXGaoHY.Application of graphene as filler to improve thermal transport property of epoxy resin for thermal interface materials. Int J Heat Mass Transfer. 2015;85:420–429.
78.
SimLCRamananSRIsmailHet al.Thermal characterization of Al2O3 and ZnO reinforced silicone rubber as thermal pads for heat dissipation purposes. Thermochim Acta. 2005;430(1–2):155–165.
79.
SarvarFWhalleyDCConwayPP.Thermal interface materials – a review of the state of the art. Electron Syst Technol Conf.2006;2:1292–1302.
BabaeiHKeblinskiPKhodadadiJM.Thermal conductivity enhancement of paraffins by increasing the alignment of molecules through adding CNT/graphene. Int J Heat Mass Transfer. 2013;58(1–2):209–216.
82.
ImHKimJ.Thermal conductivity of a graphene oxide–carbon nanotube hybrid/epoxy composite. Carbon. 2012;50(15):5429–5440.
83.
LiuZDShenDYYuJHet al.Exceptionally high thermal and electrical conductivity of three-dimensional graphene-foam based polymer composites. RSC Adv.2016;6(27):22364–22369.
FuYXMoDCLuSS.Thermal conductivity enhancement of epoxy adhesive using graphene sheets as additives. Int J Therm Sci.2014;86:276–283.
86.
SungHSKwangHPBoHK.Enhanced thermal conductivity of epoxy–graphene composites by using non-oxidized graphene flakes with non-covalent functionalization. Adv Mater.2013;25(5):732–737.
87.
ChenXNLuYGZhangXet al.The thermal and mechanical properties of graphite foam/epoxy resin composites. Mater Des. 2012;40:497–501.
88.
ZhaoYHWuZKZhangYFet al.Thermal conductivity of 3D graphene filled polymer composite. 10th International Conference on Composite Science and Technology; 2015.
89.
HaoFFangDNXuZP.Mechanical and thermal transport properties of graphene with defects. Appl Phys Lett.2011;99(4):041901–041903.
90.
MoricheRSanchezMSuarezAJet al.Strain monitoring mechanisms of sensors based on the addition of graphene nanoplatelets into an epoxy matrix. Compos Sci Technol.2016;123:65–70.
91.
VallesCKinlochLAYoungRJet al.Graphene oxide and base-washed graphene oxide as reinforcements in PMMA nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol.2013;88:158–164.
92.
HazarikaMJanaT.Graphene nanosheets generated from sulfonated polystyrene/graphene nanocomposite. Compos Sci Technol.2013;87:94–102.
93.
YuanBHWangBBHuYXet al.Electrical conductive and graphitizable polymer nanofibers grafted on graphene nanosheets: improving electrical conductivity and flame retardancy of polypropylene. Compsites Part A – Appl Sci Manufact. 2016;84:78–86.
94.
BaoCGuoYSongLet al.Poly(vinyl alcohol) nanocomposites based on graphene and graphite oxide: a comparative investigation of property and mechanism. J Mater Chem.2011;21(36):13942–13950.
95.
BaiHShengKXZhangPFet al.Graphene oxide/conducting polymer composite hydrogels. J Mater Chem.2011;21(46):18653–18658.
96.
LuYHeWNCaoTet al.Elastic, conductive, polymeric hydrogels and sponges. Sci Rep.2015;4:85.
97.
ChenMDuanSZhangLet al.Three-dimensional porous stretchable and conductive polymer composites based on graphene networks grown by chemical vapor deposition and PEDOT:PSS coating. Chem Commun.2015;51(15):3169–3172.
98.
JiaJJSunXYLinXYet al.Exceptional electrical conductivity and fracture resistance of 3D interconnected graphene foam/epoxy composites. ACS Nano. 2014;8(6):5774–5783.
99.
WangXZhiLMullenK.Conductive graphene electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Lett.2008;8(1):323–327.
100.
KimBJYangGParkMJ.Three-dimensional graphene foam-based transparent conductive electrodes in GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes. Appl Phys Lett.2013;102(16):161902–161904.
101.
XuPKangJMChoiJBet al.Laminated ultrathin chemical vapor deposition graphene films based stretchable and transparent high-rate supercapacitor. ACS Nano. 2014;8(9):9437–9445.
102.
MaXYZhangH.Fabrication of graphene films with high transparent conducting characteristics. Nanoscale Res Lett.2013;8:440–445.
103.
YangMHJeongJMHuhYSet al.High-perfoemance supercapacitor based on three-dimensional MoS2/graphene aerogel composites. Compos Sci Technol.2015;121:123–128.
104.
ChenTDaiLM.Carbon nanomaterials for high-performance supercapacitors. Mater Today. 2013;16(7–8):272–280.
105.
ChenKFSongSYLiuFet al.Structural design of graphene for use in electrochemical energy storage devices. Chem Soc Rev.2015;44(41):6230–6257.
HanJZhangLLLeeSet al.Generation of B-doped graphene nanoplatelets using a solution process and their supercapacitor applications. ACS Nano. 2013;7(1):19–26.
108.
SunLTianCTanT.Nitrogen-doped graphene with high nitrogen level via a one-step hydrothermal reaction of graphene oxide with urea for superior capacitive energy storage. RSC Adv. 2012;2(10):4498–4506.
109.
LuoJYJangHDHuangJX.Effect of sheet morphology on the scalability of graphene-based ultracapacitors. ACS Nano. 2013;7(2):1464–1471.
110.
XuYXLinZYHuangXQet al.Flexible solid-state supercapacitors based on three-dimensional graphene hydrogel films. ACS Nano. 2013;7(5):4042–4049.
111.
LuanVHTienHNHoaLTet al.Synthesis of a highly conductive and large surface area graphene oxide hydrogel and its use in a supercapacitor. J Mater Chem A. 2013;1(2):208–211.
112.
DongXCWangJXWangJet al.Supercapacitor electrode based on three-dimensional graphene–polyaniline hybrid. Mater Chem Phys.2012;134(2–3):576–580.
113.
HeYMChenWJLiXDet al.Freestanding three-dimensional graphene/MnO2 composite networks as ultralight and flexible supercapacitor electrodes. ACS Nano. 2013;7(1):174–182.
114.
HsiaBKimMSLunaLEet al.Templated 3D ultrathin CVD graphite networks with controllable geometry: synthesis and application as supercapacitor electrodes. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2014;6(21):18413–18417.
115.
KhamlichSMokraniTDhlaminiMSet al.Microwave-assisted synthesis of simonkolleite nanoplatelets on nickel foam–graphene with enhanced surface area for high-performance supercapacitors. J Colloids Interface Sci.2016;461:154–161.
116.
WangLQLiXCGuoTMet al.Three-dimensional Ni(OH)2 nanoflakes/graphene/nickel foam electrode with high rate capability for supercapacitor applications. Int J Hydrogen Energy.2014;39(15):7876–7884.
KulkarniSBPatilUMShackeryIet al.High-performance supercapacitor electrode based on a polyaniline nanofibers/3D graphene frame work as an efficient charge transporter. J Mater Chem A. 2014;2(14):4989–4998.
119.
SunYFWangXBTangBet al.Three-dimensional graphene networks modified photocatalyst with high performance under visible light irradiation. Mater Lett.2017;189:54–57.
120.
LiWGaoSWuLet al.High-density three-dimension graphene macroscopic objects for high-capacity removal of heavy metal ions. Sci Rep.2013;3:217.
121.
YoonJCLeeJSKimSet al.Three-dimensional graphene nano-networks with high quality and mass production capability via precursor-assisted chemical vapor deposition. Sci Rep.2013;3:1456.
122.
ChoiBGYangMHongWHet al.3D macroporous graphene frameworks for supercapacitors with high energy and power densities. ACS Nano. 2012;6(5):4020–4028.
123.
JiXZhangXZhangXW.Three-dimensional graphene-based nanomaterials as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. J Nanomater.2015;9:1–9.
124.
ZhangJJWuYHMeiJYet al.Synergetic adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants over 3D TiO2–graphene aerogel composites synthesized via a facile one-pot route. Photochem Photobiol Sci.2016;15(10):1012–1019.
125.
ChangQHMaZJWangJZet al.Graphene nanosheets@ZnO nanorods as three-dimensional high efficient counter electrodes for dye sensitized solar cells. Electrochim Acta. 2015;151:459–466.
126.
YuMZhangJDLiSMet al.Three-dimensional nitrogen doped holey reduced graphene oxide framework as metal-free counter electrodes for high performance dye-sensitized solar cells. J Power Sour. 2016;308:44–51.
127.
SunLJLuLBaiYet al.Three-dimensional porous reduced graphene oxide/sphere-like CoS hierarchical architecture composite as efficient counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. J Alloys Compd.2016;654:196–201.
128.
LuoFBWuKGuoHLet al.Anisotropic thermal conductivity and flame retardancy of nanocomposite based on mesogenic epoxy and reduced graphene oxide bulk. Compos Sci Technol.2016;132:1–8.
129.
KimHSBaeHSYuJet al.Thermal conductivity of polymer composites with the geometrical characteristics of graphene nanoplatelets. Sci Rep.2016;6:13108.
130.
WangMXWangYZDouHLet al.Enhanced rate capability of nanostructured three-dimensional graphene/Ni3S2 composite for supercapacitor electrode. Ceram Int.2016;42(8):9858–9865.
131.
HuNTZhangLLYangC.Three-dimensional skeleton networks of graphene wrapped polyaniline nanofibers: an excellent structure for high-performance flexible solid-state supercapacitors. Sci Rep.2016;6:1603.
132.
YuMMaYXLiuJHet al.Polyaniline nanocone arrays synthesized on three-dimensional graphene network by electrodeposition for supercapacitor electrodes. Carbon. 2015;87:98–105.
133.
FanWZhangCTjiuWW.Graphene-wrapped polyaniline hollow spheres as novel hybrid electrode materials for supercapacitor applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2013;5(8):3382–3391.
134.
DengXYLiJJZhuSet al.Three-dimensional nitrogen-doped graphene as binder-free electrode materials for supercapacitors with high volumetric capacitance and the synergistic effect between nitrogen configuration and supercapacitive performance. J Alloys Compd.2017;693:16–24.
135.
RamadossAYoonaKYKwakMJet al.Three-dimensional nitrogen-doped graphene as binder-free electrode materials for supercapacitors with high volumetric capacitance and the synergistic effect between nitrogen configuration and supercapacitive performance. J Power Sour. 2017;337:159–165.
136.
ZhaoXDongHWXiaoYet al.Three-dimensional nitrogen-doped graphene as binder-free electrode materials for supercapacitors with high volumetric capacitance and the synergistic effect between nitrogen configuration and supercapacitive performance. Electrochim Acta. 2016;218:32–40.
