Is Addiction an Illness—Can it be Treated?

National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1991. See How Drug Abuse Takes the Profit Out of Business, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Merrill J . 1993. The Cost of Substance Abuse to America's Health Care System, Report 1: Medicaid Hospital Costs, New York: Columbia University Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse.

Rice DP and Kelman S . 1991. Miller LS Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol, drug.abuse and mental illness, 1985 and 1988. Public Health Rep, 106 (3): 281–292.

Horgan C . 1994. Chartbook of Social Indicators for Substance Abuse, Princeton, NJ: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

Edelman M . 2001. Children's Defense Fund Report, Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund Press.

Saxe L , Dougherty D , Esty K and Fine M . 1983. The Effectiveness and Costs of Alcoholism Treatment Health Technology, Case Study 22Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment.

1997. Editorial commentary. Wall Street Journal, July 18: A12

Fleming MF and Barry KL . 1991. The effectiveness of alcoholism screening in an ambulatory care setting. J Stud Alcohol, 52: 33–36.

Schuckit MA . 1987. Why don't we diagnose alcoholism in our patients?. J Fam Pract, 25: 225–226.

Weisner CM and Schmidt L . 1993. Alcohol and drug problems among diverse health and social service populations. Am J Public Health, 83: 824–829.

Conrad P and Schneider JW . 1980. Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness, Toronto: CV Mosby.

1997. Editorial. New York Times, November 20: A31

Edwards G and Gross M . 1976. Alcohol dependence: provisional description of a clinical syndrome. Br Med J, 1: 1058–1061.

American Psychiatric Association. 1995. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders— Fourth Edition, Washington, DC: APA Press.

Aceto MD , Scates SM , Lowe JA and Martin BR . 1996. Dependence on delta 9–tetrahydrocannabinol: studies on precipitated and abrupt withdrawal. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 278: 1290–1295.

Tsou DT , Patrick SL and Walder JM . 1995. Physical withdrawal in rats tolerant to delta 9–tetrahydrocannabinol precipitated by a cannabinoid receptor antagonist. Eur J Pharmacol, 280: R13–R15.

Hasin D , Grant BF , Cottier L , Blaine J , Towle L and Ustun B . 1997. Sartorius, N. Nosological comparisons of alcohol and drug diagnoses: a multisite, multi–instrument international study. Drug Alcohol Depend, 47: 217–226.

Rounsaville BJ , Kosten TR , Weissman MM , Prusoff B , Pauls D , Anton SF and Merikangas K . 1991. psychiatric disorders in relatives of probands with opiate addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 48 (1): 33–42.

Rounsaville BJ , Babor TF and Meyer RE . 1989. Psychiatric symptomatology in alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 46: 45–51.

Smith TW , Turner CW , Ford MH , Hunt SC , Barlow GK , Stults BM and Williams RR . 1987. Blood pressure reactivity in adult male twins. Health Psychol, 6 (3): 209–220.

Fagard R , Brguljan J , Staessen J , Thijs L , Derom C , Thomis M and Vlietinck R . 1995. Heritability of conventional and ambulatory blood pressures. A study in twins. Hypertension, 26(6): 919–924. pt 1

Hong Y , de Faire U , Heller DA , McClearn GE and Pedersen N . 1994. Genetic and environmental influences on blood pressure in elderly twins. Hypertension, 24 (6): 663–670.

Kyvik KO , Green A and Beck–Nielsen H . 1995. Concordance rates of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: a population–based study of young Danish twins. BMJ, 311: 913–917.

Kaprio J , Tuomilehto J , Koskenvuo M , Romanov K , Reunanen A , Eriksson J , Stengard J and Kesaniemi YA . 1992. Concordance for type 1 (insulin–dependent) and type 2 (non–insulin–dependent) diabetes mellitus in a population–based cohort of twins in Finland. Diabetologia, 35 (11): 1060–1067.

Duffy DL , Martin NG , Battistutta D , Hopper JL and Mathews JD . 1990. Genetics of asthma and hay fever In Australian twins. Am Rev Respir Dis, 142(6): 1351–1358. pt 1

Nieminen MM , Kaprio J and Koskenvuo M . 1991. A population–based study of bronchial asthma in adult twin pairs. Chest, 100 (1): 70–75.

Johnson EO , van den Bree M , Uhl GR and Pickens RW . 1996. Indicators of genetic and environmental influences in drug abusing individuals. Drug Alcohol Depend, 41: 17–23.

Pickens RW , Elmer GI , LaBuda MC and Uhl GR . 1996. Genetic Vulnerability to Substance Abuse, Berlin, Germany: Springer–Verlag.

Tsuang MT , Lyons MJ , Eisen S , Goldberg J , True W , Lin N , Meyer JM and Toomey R . 1996. Faraone SV, Eaves L. Genetic influences on DSM–III–R drug abuse and dependence: a study of 3, 372 twin pairs. Am J Med Genet, 67: 473–477.

Gynther LM , Carey G , Gottesman I and Vogler GP . 1995. A twin study of non–alcohol substance abuse. Psychiatry Res, 56 (3): 213–220.

Kendler KS , Heath AC , Neale MC , Kessler RC and Eaves LJ . 1992. A population–based twin study of alcoholism in women. JAMA, 268: 1877–1882.

Mitchell BD , Kammerer CM , Blangero J , Mahaney MC , Rainwater DL , Dyke B , Hixson JE , Henkel RD , Sharp RM , Comuzzie AG , Van de Berg JL , Stern MP and MacCluer JW . 1996. Genetic and environmental contributions to cardiovascular risk factors in Mexican Americans. The San Antonio Family Heart Study. Circulation, 94 (9): 2159–2170.

Svetkey LP , McKeown SP and Wilson AF . 1996. Heritability of salt sensitivity in black Americans. Hypertension, 28 (5): 854–858.

Schuckit MA . 1984. Subjective responses to alcohol in sons of alcoholics and control subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 41: 879–884.

Schuckit MA and Smith TL . 1996. An 8–year follow–up of 450 sons of alcoholics and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 53: 202–210.

Thomasson HR , Edenberg HJ , Crabb DW , Mai XL , Jerome RE , Li TK , Wang SP , Lin YT , Lu RB and Yin SJ . 1991. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and alcholism in Chinese men. Am J Hum Genet, 48: 667–681.

Helzer JE , Canino GJ , Yeh EK , Bland RC , Lee CK and Hwu HG . 1990. Newman, S. Alcoholism— North America and Asia. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 47: 313–319.

Chao YC , Kiou SR , Chung YY , Tang HS , Hsu CS , Li TK and Tin SJ . 1994. Polymorphism of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genes and alcoholic cirrhosis in Chinese patients. Hepatology, 19: 360–366.

Koob GF and Bloom FE . 1998. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science, 242: 715–723.

1997. Science, 278 (5335) October 3: 45–69.

1996. Special Issue on Addiction. Lancet, 347 (9013): 1604–1679.

Institute of Medicine. 1995. Dispelling the Myths About Addiction, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Institute of Medicine. 1995. Development of Medications for the Treatment of Opiate and Cocaine Addictions: Issues for the Government and Private Sector, Edited by: Fulco CE , Liverman CT and Earley LE . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Wise RA and Bozarth MA . 1981. Brain substrates for reinforcement and drug–self–administration. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol, 5: 467–474.

Volkow ND , Fowler JS , Wolf AP , Hitzemann R , Dewey S , Bendriem B , Alpert R and Hoff A . 1991. Changes in brain glucose metabolism in cocaine dependence and withdrawal. Am J Psychiatry, 148 (5): 621–626.

London ED , Cascella NG , Wong DF , Phillips RL , Dannals RF , Links JM , Herning R , Grayson R , Jaffe JH and Wagner HN Jr. 1990. Cocaine–induced reduction of glucose utilization in human brain. A study of positron emission tomography and [fluorine 18]–fluorodeoxyglucose. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 47: 567–574.

Weiss F . 1996. “Neurochemical adaptation in brain reward systems during drug addiction”. In Advancing Understanding of Drug Addiction, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Kreek MJ and Koob GF . 1998. Drug dependence: stress and dysregulation of brain reward pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend, 51 (1–2): 23–48.

Self DW and Nestler EJ . 1998. Drug dependence: stress and dysregulation of brain reward pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend, 51 (1–2): 49–60.

Roberts DCS , Corcoran ME and Fibiger HC . 1977. On the role of ascending catecholaminergic systems in intravenous self–administration of cocaine. Pharmacol Biochem Behavior, 6: 615–620.

Phillips AG , Pfaus JG and Blaha CD . 1995. “Dopamine and motivated behavior: insights provided by in vivo analyses”. In The Mesolimbic Dopamine System: From Motivation to Action, Edited by: Willner P and Scheel–Kruger J . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Volkow ND . 1997. Relationship between subjective effects of cocaine and dopamine transporter occupancy. Nature, 386 (6227): 827–830.

Volkow ND , Fowler JS , Wang G , Hitzemann R , Logan J , Schyler DJ , Dewey SL and Wolf AP . 1993. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse, 14: 169–177.

Volkow ND , Hitzemann R , Wang GJ , Fowler JS , Wolf AP and Handelsman L . 1992. Long–term frontal brain metabolic changes in cocaine abusers. Synapse, 11: 184–190.

Childress AR , McLellan AT , Ehrman R and Oapos;Brien CP . 1998. “Classically conditioned responses in opioid and cocaine dependence: a role in relapse?”. In Learning Factors in Substance Abuse, Research Monograph 84 Edited by: Ray B . Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Baxter LR , Schwartz JM Phelps M . 1988. Localization of neurochemical effects of cocaine and other stimulants in the human brain. J Clin Psychiatry, 49: 23–26.

Volkow ND , Mullani N , Gould KL , Adler S and Krajewski K . 1988. Cerebral blood flow in chronic cocaine users: a study with positron emission tomography. Br J Psychiatry, 152: 641–648.

Holman BL , Mendelson J , Garada B , Teoh SK , Hallgring E , Johnson KA and Mello NK . 1993. Regional cerebral blood flow improves with treatment in chronic cocaine polydrug users. J Nucl Med, 34: 723–727.

Pearlson GD , Jeffery PJ , Harris GJ , Ross CA , Fischman MW and Camargo EE . 1993. Correlation of acute cocaine–induced changes in local cerebral blood flow with subjective effects. Am J Psychiatry, 150 (3): 495–497.

O'Brien CP . 1975. Experimental analysis of conditioning factors in human narcotic addiction. Pharmacol Rev, 27 (4): 533–543.

Childress AR , McElgin W , Mozley PD , Fitzgerald J , Reivich M and O'Brien CP . 1999. Iimbic activation during cue–induced cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry, 156: 11–18.

Stewart RG and Ware LG . 1989. The Medical Outcomes Study, Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation Press.

McLellan AT , Woody GE , Metzger D , McKay J , Alterman AI and O'Brien CP . 1996. Evaluating the effectiveness of treatments for substance use disorders: Reasonable expectations, appropriate comparisons. Milbank Q, 74 (1): 51–85.

Ball JC . 1991. The Effectiveness of Methadone Maintenance Treatment, Edited by: Ross A . New York: Springer–Verlag.

Food and Drug Administration. 1990. “Compliance Policy Guidelines”. In Code of Federal Regulations, Vol 21, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. paragraph 310

Metzger DS , Woody GE , McLellan AT , Druley P , DePhillipis D , O'Brien C , Stolley P and Abrutyn E . 1993. HIV seroconversion among in and out of treatment intravenous drug users: an 18–month prospective follow–up. AIDS, 6 (9): 1049–1056.

Neaiguus A , Sufian M and Friedman SR . 1990. Effects of outreach intervention on risk reduction among intravenous drug users. AIDS, 2: 253–271.

Booth R and Weibel WW . 1992. Effectiveness of reducing needle–related risk behaviors for HIV through indigenous outreach to injection drug users. Am J Addict, 23: 277–287.

Anderson MD , Smereck GA and Braunstein MS . 1993. LIGHT model: an effective intervention to change high–risk AIDS behavior among hard–to–reach urban drug users. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 19: 309–325.

McLellan AT , Metzger DS , Alterman AI , Woody GE , Durell J and O'Brien CP . Is addiction treatment “worth it”? Public health expectations, policy–based comparisons. Proceedings of the Josiah Macy Conference on Medical Education. New York. Edited by: Lewis DL . pp.165–212. Josiah Macy Foundation.

Booth RE , Crowley TJ and Zhang Y . 1996. Substance abuse treatment entry, retention and effectiveness: out–of–treatment opiate injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 42: 11–20.

Strecher VJ , Korbin SC , Kreuter MW , Roodhouse K and Farrel D . 1994. Opportunities for alcohol screening and counseling in primary care. J Fam Pract, 39: 26–32.

Babor TF , Ritson EB and Hodgson RJ . 1986. Alcohol–related problems in the primary care setting: a review of early intervention strategies. Br J Addict, 81: 23–46.

Svikis DS , Golden AS , Huggins GR , Pickens RW McCaul ME . 1997. Cost–effectiveness of treatment for drug–abusing pregnant women. Drug Alcohol Depend, 45 (1,2): 105–115.

Finnegan L and Kandall S . 1992. “Maternal and neonatal effects of alcohol and drugs”. In Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 2nd ed., Edited by: Lowinson J . Philadelphia: Williams and Wilkins.

Glantz JK and Woods JR . 1993. Cocaine, heroin and phyencyclidine: obstetric perspectives. Clin Obstet Gynecol, 85: 468–479.

Haller DL , Knisely JS , Dawson KS and Schnoll SH . 1993. Perinatal substance abusers: psychological and psychosocial characteristics. J Nerv Ment Dis, 18: 509–513.

Philbbs CS , Batema DA and Schwartz RM . 1991. The neonatal costs of maternal cocaine use. JAMA, 11: 1521–1526.

Anton RE . 1995. New directions in the pharmacotherapy of alcoholism. Psychiatric Ann, 25: 353–362.

O'Brien CP . 1996. Recent developments in the pharmacotherapy of substance abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol, 664: 677–686.

Nightingale SL . 1993. Levomethadyl approved for the treatment of opiate dependence. JAMA, 270: 1290

Milby JB . 1998. Methadone maintenance to abstinence. How many make it?. J Nerv Ment Dis, 176: 409–422.

Gossop M , Johns A and Green L . 1986. Opiate withdrawal: inpatient versus outpatient programmes and preferred versus random assignment. Br Med J, 293: 103–104.

Mattick RP and Hall W . 1996. Are detoxification programmes effective?. Lancet, 347: 97–100.

National Consensus Development Panel. 1998. Effective Medical Treatment of Opiate Addiction: Report of the NIH Consensus Conference on the Treatment of Opiate Addiction. JAMA, 280 (22): 1936–1943.

Bickel WK and Amass L . 1995. Buprenorphine treatment of opioid dependence: a review. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 3: 477–489.

Johnson RE , Cone EJ , Henningfield JE and Fudala PJ . 1989. Use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction. Clinical Pharmacol Ther, 46: 335–343.

O'Brien CP , Childress AR , McLellan AT , Ternes J and Ehrman R . 1984. Use of naltrexone to extinguish opioid conditioned responses. J Clin Psychiatry, 45 (9): 53–56.

Resnick RB , Volavka J , Freedman AM and Thomas M . 1974. Studies of EN–1639–A (naltrexone): a new narcotic antagonist. Am J Psychiatry, 131: 646–650.

O'Brien CP , Greenstein RA , Mintz J and Woody GE . 1975. Clinical experience with naltrexone. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 2: 365–377.

Martin WR , Jasinski DR and Mansky PA . 1973. Naltrexone, an antagonist for the treatment of heroin dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 28: 784–791.

Ling W and Wesson DR . 1984. Naltrexone treatment for addicted health care professionals: a collaborative private practice experience. J Clin Psychiatry, 5 (9): 46–48.

Cornish J , Metzger D Woody G . 1998. Naltrexone pharmacotherapy for opioid dependent federal probationers. J Subst Abuse Treat, 13: 477–489.

Volpicelli JR , Alterman AI , Hayashida M and O'Brien CP . 1992. Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 49: 876–880.

O'Malley SS , Jaffe AJ Chang G . 1992. Naltrexone and coping skills therapy for alcohol dependence: a controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 49: 881–887.

Sass H , Soyka M , Mann K and Zieglgasberger W . 1996. Relapse prevention by acamprosate: results from a placebo–controlled study on alcohol dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 53: 673–680.

Fox BS . 1997. Development of a therapeutic vaccine for the treatment of cocaine addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend, 48: 153–158.

Woody GE , O'Brien CP and Rickels K . 1975. Depression and anxiety in heroin addicts: a placebo–controlled study of doxepin in combination with methadone. Am J Psychiatry, 132: 447–450.

Carroll KM , Rounsaville BJ , Gordon LT , Nich C , Jatlow P , Bisighini RM and Gawin FH . 1994. Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for ambulatory cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 51: 177–187.

Mason BJ , Kocsis JH , Ritvo EC and Cutler RB . 1996. A double–blind, placebo–controlled trial of desipramine for primary alcohol dependence stratified on the presence or absence of major depression. JAMA, 275: 761–767.

Kosten TR , Rounsaville BJ and Kleber HD . 1987. Multidimensionality and prediction and treatment outcome in opioid addicts: 2.5–year follow–up. Compr Psychiatry, 28: 3–13.

Rounsaville BJ , Dolinsky ZS , Babor TF and Meyer RE . 1987. Psychopa–thology as a predictor of treatment outcome in alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 44: 505–513.

Carroll KM , Power MD , Bryant K and Rounsaville BJ . 1993. One–year follow–up status of treatment–seeking cocaine abusers: psycho–pathology and dependence severity as predictors of outcome. J Nerv Ment Dis, 181: 71–79.

Babor TF . 1990. Brief intervention strategies for harmful drinkers: new directions for medical education. Can Med Assoc J, 143: 1070–1076.

Healther N , Campion PD , Neville RG and McCabe D . 1987. Evaluation of a controlled drinking minimal intervention for problem drinkers in general practice. Gen Pract, 37: 358–363.

Miller WR . 1987. Techniques to modify hazardous drinking patterns. Recent Dev Alcohol, 5: 425–438.

Kristenson H , Ohlin H , Hulten–Nosslin M , Trell E and Hood B . 1983. Identification and intervention of heavy drinking in middle–aged men. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 7: 203–209.

Wallace P , Cutler S and Haines A . 1988. Randomized controlled trial of general practitioner intervention in patients with excessive alcohol consumption. Br Med J, 297: 663–668.

World Health Organization Brief Intervention Study Group. 1996. A cross–national trial of brief intervention with heavy drinkers. Am J Public Health, 86: 948–955.

Fleming MF , Barry KL , Manwell LB , Johnson K and London R . 1997. Brief physician advice for problem alcohol drinkers: a randomized controlled trial in community–based primary care practices. JAMA, 277: 1039–1045.

Bien TH , Miller WR and Tonigan JS . 1993. Brief interventions for alcohol problems: a review. Addiction, 88: 315–335.

Fleming MF , Mundt MP , French MT , Manwell LB , Stafffacher EA and Barry LB . 2000. Benefit–cost analyses of brief physician advice with problem drinkers in primary care settings. Med Care, 38: 7–18.

Moos RH , Finney JW and Cronkite RC . 1990. Alcoholism Treatment–Context, Process and Outcome, New York: Oxford University Press.

Simpson D . 1980. Savage L Drug abuse treatment readmissions and outcomes. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 37: 896–901.

Hubbard RL , Marsden ME , Rachal JV , Harwood HJ , Cavanaugh ER and Ginzburg HM . 1989. Drug Abuse Treatments National Study of Effectiveness, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

DeLeon G . 1984. The Therapeutic Community: Study of Effectiveness Treatment, Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse. NIDA Research Monograph 84–1286

Miller WR and Hester RK . 1986. “The effectiveness of alcoholism treatment methods: what research reveals”. In Treating Addictive Behaviors: Process of Change, Edited by: Miller WR and Heather N . New York: Plenum Press.

Gerstein D and Harwood H . 1990. Treating Drug Problems, Vol 1, Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Gerstein D , Judd LL and Rovner SA . 1979. Career dynamics of female heroin addicts. Am J Drug Alcohol Abase, 6 (1): 1–23.

McLellan AT , Alterman AI , Metzger DS , Grissom G , Woody GE , Luborsky L and O'Brien CP . 1991. Similarity of outcome predictors across opiate, cocaine and alcohol treatments: role of treatment services. J Clin Consult Psychol, 62 (6): 1141–1158.

Volpicelli JR , Rhines KC , Rhines JS , Volpicelli LA , Alterman AI and O'Brien CP . 1997. Naltrexone and alcohol dependence: role of subject compliance. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 54 (8): 737–742.

McLellan AT , Woody GE , Metzger D , McKay J , Alterman AI and O'Brien CP . 1996. Evaluating the effectiveness of treatments for substance use disorders: reasonable expectations, appropriate comparisons. Milbank Q, 74 (1): 51–85.

O'Brien CP and McLellan AT . 1996. Myths about the treatment of addiction. Lancet, 347: 237–240.

Graber AL , Davidson P , Brown A , McRae J and Woolridge K . 1992. Dropout and relapse during diabetes care. Diabetes Care, 15 (11): 477–1483.

Horowitz RI . 1993. Treatment adherence and risk of death after a myocardial heart infarction. Lancet, 336 (8714): 542–545.

Dekker FW , Dieleman FE , Kaptein AA and Mulder JD . 1993. Compliance with pulmonary medication in general practice. EurRespir J, 6 (6): 886–890.

Clark LT . 1991. Improving compliance and increasing control of hypertension: needs of special hypertensive populations. Am Heart J, 121(2): 664–669. pt2

Kurtz SM . 1990. Adherence to diabetic regimes: Empirical status and clinical applications. Diabetes Educ, 16 (1): 50–59.

Sinnock P . 1985. “Hospitalization of diabetes”. In Diabetes Data, Bethesda, Md.: National Institutes of Health. National Diabetes Data Group

Herman WH and Teutsch SM . 1985. “Diabetic renal disorders”. In Diabetes Data, Bethesda, Md.: National Institutes of Health. National Diabetes Data Group

Schaub AF , Steiner A and Vetter W . 1983. Compliance to treatment. J Clin Exp Hypertens, 15 (6): 1121–1130.

Gorlin R . 1991. Hypertension and ischemic heart disease: the challenge of the 1990s. Am Heart J, 121(2): 658–663. pt 2

Satel SL , Price LH , Palumbo JM McDougle CJ . 1991. Clinical phenomenology and neurobiology of cocaine abstinence: a prospective inpatient study. Am J Psychiatry, 148: 1712–1716.

Weddington WW . 1992. Cocaine abstinence: “withdrawal”; or residua of chronic intoxication?. Am J Psychiatry, 149: 1761–1762.

Gawin FH and Kleber HD . 1986. Abstinence symptomatology and psychiatric diagnoses in cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 43: 107–113.

Gawin FH and Ellinwood EH . 1988. Cocaine and other stimulants: actions, abuse, and treatment. N Engl J Med, 318: 1173–1182.

Fleming MF and Barry KL . 1992. Addictive Disorders, St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Yearbook.

Hayashida M , Alterman AI McLellan AT . 1989. Comparative effectiveness of inpatient and outpatient detoxification of patients with mild–to–moderate alcohol withdrawal syndrome. N Engl J Med, 320: 358–365.

Stockwell T , Bolt L , Milner I , Puch P and Young I . 1990. Home detoxification for problem drinkers: acceptability to clients, relatives, general practioners and outcome after 60 days. Br J Addict, 85: 61–70.

Elman I , D'Ambra MN , Krause S , Beiter H , Kane M , Morris R , Tuffy L and Gastfriend DR . 2001. Ultrarapid opioid detoxification: effects on cardiopulmonary physiology, stress hormones, and clinical outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend, 61 (2): 163–173.

Brewer C , Williams J , Carreno–Rendueles E and Bobes–Garcia J . 2001. Unethical promotion of rapid opiate detoxification under anaestehsia (RODA). Lancet, 351 (9097): 218

Cushman P and Dole VP . 1973. Detoxification of rehabilitated methadone–maintained patients. JAMA, 226: 747–752.

Institute of Medicine. 1995. Federal Regulation of Methadone Treatment, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Gossop M , Johns A and Green L . 1986. Opiate withdrawal: inpatient versus outpatient programmes and preferred versus random assignment. Br Med J, 293: 103–104.

Lipton DS and Maranda MJ . 1983. Detoxification from heroin dependency: an overview of method and effectiveness. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse, 2: 31–55.

Alterman A , McKay J , Mulvaney F and McLellan AT . 1996. Prediction of attrition from day hospital treatment in lower socioeconomic cocaine–dependent men. Drug Alcohol Depend, 40: 227–233.

Kang SY , Kleinman PH , Woody GE Millman RB . 1991. Outcomes for cocaine abusers after once–a–week psychosocial therapy. Am J Psychiatry, 148: 630–635.

Carroll KM , Rounsaville BJ and Gawin FH . 1991. A comparative trial of psychotherapies for ambulatory cocaine abusers: relapse prevention and interpersonal psychotherapy. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 17: 229–247.

Volpicelli JR , Alterman AI , Hayashida M and O'Brien CP . 1992. Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 49: 876–880.

O'Malley SS , Jaffe AJ , Rode S and Rounsaville BJ . 1996. Experience of a “slip”; among alcoholics treated with naltrexone or placebo. Am J Psychiatry, 153: 281–283.

McLellan AT and Ball JC . 1995. “Is methadone treatment effective?”. In A Re– Evaluation of Federal Regulations on Methadone Treatment, Edited by: Rettig R . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

McLellan AT , Woody GE , Metzger D , McKay J , Alterman AI and O'Brien CP . 1995. “Evaluating the effectiveness of treatments for substance use disorders: reasonable expectations, appropriate comparisons”. In The Milbank Foundation Volume on Health Policy Issues, Edited by: Fox D . New York: Milbank Foundation Press.

McLellan AT and Weisner C . 1996. “Achieving the public health potential of substance abuse treatment: implications for patient referral, treatment “matching”; and outcome evaluation”. In Drug Policy and Human Nature, Edited by: Bickel W and DeGrandpre R . Philadelphia: Willliams & Wilkins.

McLellan AT and Durell J . 1995. “Evaluating substance abuse and psychiatric treatments: conceptual and methodological considerations”. In Outcomes Assessment in Clinical Practice, Edited by: Sederer L . New York: Williams & Wilkins.

McCrady BS , Noel NE , Abrams DB , Stout RL , Nelson HF and Hay WM . 1986(a). Comparative effectiveness of three types of spouse involvement in outpatient behavioral alcoholism treatment. J Stud Alcohol, 47: 459–467.

Alterman AI , McLellan AT , O'Brien CP , August DS , Snider EC , Cornish JC , Droba M , Hall CP , Raphaelson A and Schrade F . 1994. Effectiveness and costs of inpatient versus day hospital cocaine rehabilitation. J Nerv Ment Dis, 182: 157–163.

Miller WR and Hester RK . 1986. Inpatient alcoholism treatment: who benefits?. Am Psychol, 41: 794–805.

Holder HD , Longabaugh R , Miller WR and Rubonis A . 1991. The cost effectiveness of treatment for alcohol problems: a first approximation. J Stud Alcohol, 52: 517–540.

Walsh DC , Hingson R Merrigan D . 1991. A randomized trial of treatment options for alcohol–abusing workers. N Engl J Med, 325: 775–782.

Finney JW , Halm AC and Moos RH . 1996. The effectiveness of inpatient and outpatient treatment of substance abuse: the need to focus on mediators and moderators of setting effects. Addiction, 91: 1773–1796.

McKay JR , Alterman AI , McLellan AT Snider C . 1994. Treatment goals, continuity of care, and outcome in a day hospital substance abuse rehabilitation program. Am J Psychiatry, 151: 254–259.

McKay JR , McLellan AT and Alterman AI . 1992. An evaluation of the Cleveland Criteria for Inpatient Treatment of Substance Abuse. Am J Psychiatry, 149: 1212–1218.

Ball JC and Ross A . 1991. The Effectiveness of Methadone Maintenance Treatment, New York: Springer–Verlag.

DeLeon G . 1984. The Therapeutic Community: Study of Effectiveness Treatment Research, Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse. NIDA Monograph 84–1286

Hubbard RL , Marsden ME , Rachal JV , Harwood HJ , Cavanaugh ER and Ginzburg HM . 1989. Drug Abuse Treatment: A National Study of Effectiveness, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Simpson DD . 1981. Treatment for drug abuse: follow–up outcomes and length of time spent. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 38: 875–880.

Simpson DD , Joe GW and Brown BS . 1997. Treatment retention and follow–up outcomes in the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS). Psychol Addictive Behav, 11 (4): 294–301.

Project MATCH Research Group. 1997. Matching alcoholism treatments to client heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment drinking outcomes. J Stud Alcohol, 58: 7–29.

McLatchie BH and Lomp KG . 1988. Alcoholics Anonymous affiliation and treatment outcome among a clinical sample of problem drinkers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 14: 309–324.

McKay JR , Alterman AI , Cacciola JS , Rutherford MR , O'Brien CP and Koppenhaver J . 1997. Group counseling vs. individualized relapse prevention aftercare following intensive outpatient treatment for cocaine dependence: initial results. J Consult Clin Psychol, 65: 778–788.

Timko C , Moos RH , Finney JW and Moos BS . 1994. Outcome of treatment for alcohol abuse and involvement in Alcoholics Anonymous among previously untreated problem drinkers. J Ment Health Admin, 21: 145–160.

Tonigan JS , Toscova R and Miller WR . 1996. Meta–analysis of the literature on Alcoholics Anonymous: sample and study characteristics moderate findings. J Stud Alcohol, 57: 65–72.

Morgenstern J , Labouvie E , McCrady B , Kahler C and Frey R . 2001. Affiliation with Alcoholics Anonymous following treatment: A study of its therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action. J Consult Clin Psychol, 167: 85–92.

McLellan AT , Arndt IO , Woody GE and Metzger D . 1993. Psychosocial services in substance abuse treatment? A dose–ranging study of psychosocial services. JAMA, 269 (15): 1953–1959.

Florentine R and Anglin MD . 1997. Does increasing the opportunity for counseling increase the effectiveness of outpatient drug treatment?. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 23 (3): 369–382.

Luborsky L , McLellan AT , Woody GE and O'Brien CP . 1985. Therapist success and its determinants. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 42: 602–611.

McLellan AT , Woody GE , Luborsky L and Goehl L . 1988. Is the counselor an “active ingredient”; in substance abuse rehabilitation?. J Nerv Ment Dis, 176: 423–430.

Miller WR , Taylor CA and West JC . 1980. Focused versus broad–spectrum behavior therapy for problem drinkers. J. Consult Clin Psychol, 48: 590–601.

McCaul M and Svikis D . 1991. Improving Client Compliance in Outpatient Treatment: Counselor–Targeted linterventions, NIDA Research Monograph 106Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Miller WR , Benefield RG and Tonigan JS . 1993. Enhancing motivation for change in problem drinking: a controlled comparison of two therapist styles. J Consult Clin Psychol, 61: 455–461.

Najavits LM and Weiss RD . 1994. Variations in therapist effectiveness in the treatment of patients with substance use disorders: An empirical review. Addiction, 89 (6): 679–688.

Valle S . 1981. Interpersonal functioning of alcoholism counselors and treatment outcome. J Stud Alcohol, 42: 783–790.

Azrin NH , Sisson RW , Meyers RW and Godley M . 1982. Alcoholism treatment by disulfiram and community reinforcement therapy. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry, 13: 105–112.

Meyers RJ and Smith JE . 1995. Clinical Guide to Alcohol Treatment: The Community Reinforcement Approach, New York: Guilford.

Higgins ST , Budney AJ , Bickel WK , Badger GJ , Foerg FE and Ogden D . 1995. Outpatient behavioral treatment for cocaine dependence: one–year outcome. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 3: 205–212.

Higgins ST , Budney AJ , Bickel WK , Foerg FE , Donham R and Badger GJ . 1994. Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 51: 568–576.

Higgins ST , Budney AJ , Bickel WK , Hughes JR , Foerg FE and Badger GJ . 1993. Achieving cocaine abstinence with a behavioral approach. Am J Psychiatry, 150: 763–769.

Higgins ST , Delaney DD , Budney AJ , Bickel WK , Hughes JR , Foerg F and Fenwick JW . 1991. A behavioral approach to achieving initial cocaine abstinence. Am J Psychiatry, 148: 1218–1224.

Gastfriend D and McLellan AT . 1997. “Treatment matching: theoretical basis and practical implications”. In Med Clin North Am, Edited by: Samet J and Stein M . New York: WB Saunders.

McLellan AT , Grissom G , Zanis D and Bril P . 1997. Problem–service “matching”; in addiction treatment: a prospective study in four programs. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 54: 730–735.

Cornelius IR , Salloum IM , Ehler JG , Jarrett PJ , Cornelius MD , Perel JM , Thase JE and Black A . 1997. Fluoxetine in depressed alcoholics: a double–blind, placebo controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 54: 700–705.

Mason BJ , Kocsis JH , Ritvo EC and Cutler RB . 1996. A double–blind, placebo–controlled trial of desipramine for primary alcohol dependence stratified on the presence or absence of major depression. JAMA, 275: 761–767.

McGrath PJ , Nunes EV , Stewart JW , Goldman D , Agosti V , Ocepek–Welikson K and Quitkin FM . 1996. Imipramine treatment of alcoholics with primary depression: a placebo–controlled clinical trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 53: 232–240.

Kranzler HR , Burleson JA , Del Boca FK , Babor TF , Korner P , Brown J and Bohn MJ . 1994. Buspirone treatment of anxious alcoholics: a placebo–controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 517: 20–731.

Carroll KM , Nich C and Rounsaville BJ . 1995. Differential symptom reduction in depressed cocaine abusers treated with psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. J Nerv Ment Dis, 183: 251–259.

Woody GE , McLellan AT Luborsky L . 1984. Psychiatric severity as a predictor of benefits from psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry, 141: 1171–1177.

Belenko S . 1998. Behind Bars: Substance Abuse and America's Prison Population, New York: National Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University.

Inciardi JA . 1988. “Some considerations on the clinical efficacy of compulsory treatment: reviewing the New York experience”. In Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice, NIDA Research Monograph 86 Edited by: Leukefeld CG and Tims MF . Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse.