Magnesium alloy matrix and hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticle reinforced composites for biomedical applications were fabricated by combined high shear solidification and equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE). The high shear treatment was performed immediately prior to casting at 680°C using a rotor–stator mechanism. The as-cast composite ingots were processed by ECAE at 300°C to various strains. The high shear treatment effectively reduced HA particle agglomeration and produced a fine grain structure for all HA contents. ECAE processing resulted in further grain refinement and an improved HA particle distribution, with the formation of a desirable HA dispersion. The composites with 3–5 wt-% HA displayed an optimum combination of strength and ductility, with a yield strength of 150–210 MPa and compressive reductions of 9∼13% before fracture.
WitteF, HortN, VogtC, Degradable biomaterials based on magnesium corrosion. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci. 2008;12:63–72. doi: 10.1016/j.cossms.2009.04.001
2.
LiX, LiuX, WuS, Design of magnesium alloys with controllable degradation for biomedical implants: from bulk to surface. Acta Biomater. 2016;45:2–30. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.09.005
3.
ZhaoD, WitteF, LuF, Current status on clinical applications of magnesium-based orthopaedic implants: a review from clinical translational perspective. Biomaterials. 2017;112:287–302. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.10.017
4.
GurunathanT, MohantyS, NayakSK.A review of the recent developments in biocomposites based on natural fibres and their application perspectives. Composites Part A. 2015;77:1–25. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.06.007
5.
SongG.Recent progress in corrosion and protection of magnesium alloys. Adv Eng Mater. 2005;7:563–586. doi: 10.1002/adem.200500013
6.
WitteF.The history of biodegradable magnesium implants: a review. Acta Biomater. 2010;6:1680–1692. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.02.028
7.
ZbergB, UggowitzerPJ, LofflerJF.MgZnCa glasses without clinically observable hydrogen evolution for biodegradable implants. Nature Mater. 2009;8:887–891. doi: 10.1038/nmat2542
8.
SunY, ZhangB, WangY, Preparation and characterization of a new biomedical Mg-Zn-Ca alloy. Mater Design. 2012;34:58–64. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2011.07.058
9.
ZanderD, ZumdickNA.Influence of Ca and Zn on the microstructure and corrosion of biodegradable Mg–Ca–Zn alloys. Corrosion Sci. 2015;93:222–233. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2015.01.027
10.
SongYW, ShanDY, HanEH.Electrodeposition of hydroxyapatite coating on AZ91D magnesium alloy for biomaterial application. Mater Lett. 2008;62:3276–3279. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2008.02.048
11.
HornbergerH, VirtanenS, BoccacciniAR.Biomedical coatings on magnesium alloys – a review. Acta Biomater. 2012;8:2442–2455. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.04.012
12.
HänziAC, GundeP, SchinhammerM, On the biodegradation performance of an Mg–Y–RE alloy with various surface conditions in simulated body fluid. Acta Biomater. 2009;5:162–171. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2008.07.034
13.
NgWF, WongMH, ChengFT.Stearic acid coating on magnesium for enhancing corrosion resistance in Hanks’ solution. Surf Coat Technol. 2010;204:1823–1830. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.11.024
GuXN, ZhouW, ZhengYF, Microstructure, mechanical property, bio-corrosion and cytotoxicity evaluations of Mg/HA composites. Mater Sci Eng C. 2010;30:827–832. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2010.03.016
16.
KhalilKA, SherifE-S, AlmajidAA.Corrosion passivation in simulated body fluid of magnesium/ hydroxyapatite nanocomposites sintered by high frequency induction heating. J Electrochem Sci. 2011;6:6184–6199.
17.
GuXN, WangX, LiN, Microstructure and characteristics of the metal–ceramic composite (MgCa-HA/TCP) fabricated by liquid metal infiltration. J Biomed Mater Res Part B. 2011;99B:127–134. doi: 10.1002/jbm.b.31879
18.
AhmadkhanihaD, FedelM, SohiMH, Corrosion behavior of magnesium and magnesium–hydroxyapatitecomposite fabricated by friction stir processing in dulbecco's phosphate buffered saline. Corros Sci. 2016;104:319–329. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2016.01.002
19.
HeS, SunY, ChenM, Microstructure and properties of biodegradable β-TCP reinforced Mg-Zn-Zr composites. Trans Nonferrous Mat Soc China. 2011;21:814–819. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(11)60786-3
20.
HuangY, LiuD, AnguilanoL, Fabrication and characterization of a biodegradable Mg-2Zn-0.5Ca/1β-TCP composite. Mater Sci Eng C. 2015;54:120–132. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.05.035
21.
LiJ, HuangY.Microstructure and mechanical properties of an Mg-3Zn-0.5Zr-5HA nanocomposite processed by ECAP. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2014;63:012112. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/63/1/012112
22.
FanZ, XiaM, ZhangH.Melt conditioning by advanced shear technology (MCAST) for refining solidification microstructures. Inter J Cast Met Res. 2009;22:103–107. doi: 10.1179/136404609X367443
23.
SegalVM.Materials processing by simple shear. Mater Sci Eng A. 1995;197:157–164. doi: 10.1016/0921-5093(95)09705-8
24.
HashimJ, LooneyL, HashmiMSJ.Metal matrix composites: production by the stir casting method. J Mater Proc Technol. 1999;92-93:1–7. doi: 10.1016/S0924-0136(99)00118-1
25.
XiaM, HuangY, CassinathZ, Continuous twin screw rheo-extrusion of an AZ91D magnesium alloy. Metall Mater Trans A. 2012;43:4331–4344. doi: 10.1007/s11661-012-1201-x
26.
ValievRZ, LangdonTG.Principles of equal-channel angular pressing as a processing tool for grain refinement. Prog Mater Sci. 2006;51:881–981. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2006.02.003
27.
SabirovI, KolednikO, ValievRZ, Equal channel angular pressing of metal matrix composites: effect on particle distribution and fracture toughness. Acta Mater. 2005;53:4919–4930. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2005.07.010
28.
XiaK.Consolidation of particles by severe plastic deformation: mechanism and applications in processing bulk ultrafine and nanostructured alloys and composites. Adv Eng Mater. 2010;12:724–729. doi: 10.1002/adem.200900332
29.
AvedesianMM, BakereH.ASM specialty handbook: Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Novelty, HO: Sci & Technol Press; 1999. p. 16–20.
30.
BayraktarHH, MorganEF, NieburGL, Comparison of the elastic and yield properties of human femoral trabecular and cortical bone tissue. J Biomechanics. 2004;37:27–35. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9290(03)00257-4
31.
ZiouposP., CurreyJD.Changes in the stiffness, strength, and toughness of human cortical bone with age. Bone. 1998;22:57–66. doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(97)00228-7
32.
ChawlaN, ChawlaKK.Metal matrix composites. New York: Springer Science + Business Media Inc; 2006. p. 89–102.
33.
LimPN, LamRN, ZhengFZ, Magnesium-calcium/hydroxyapatite(Mg-Ca/HA) composites with enhanced bone differentiation properties for orthopaedic applications. Mater Lett. 2016;172:193–197. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2016.03.005
34.
QuestedTE, GreerAL.The effect of the size distribution of inoculant particles on as-cast grain size in aluminium alloys. Acta Mater. 2004;52:3859–3868. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2004.04.035
35.
YeX, ChenM, YangM, In vitro corrosion resistance and cytocompatibility of nano-haydroxyapatite reinforced Mg-Zn-Zr composites. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2010;21:1321–1328. doi: 10.1007/s10856-009-3954-3
36.
SuchanekW, YoshimuraY.Processing and properties of hydroxyapatite-based biomaterials for use as hard tissue replacement implants. J Mater Res. 1998;13:94–117. doi: 10.1557/JMR.1998.0015
37.
CacciottiI, BiancoA, LombardiM, Mg-substituted hydroxyapatite nanopowders: synthesis, thermal stability and sintering behaviour. J Euro Ceramic Soc. 2009;29:2969–2978. doi: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.04.038
