The mental health function of dreaming was studied among Palestinian children and
adolescents in a trauma group (N= 268) and a comparison (N= 144)
group. The subjects were 6- to 15-year-old boys and girls, the mean age being
11.2± 2.64. They used a seven-day dream diary to record the dreams they
could recall every morning. The results suggest that compensatory dreams could
moderate between trauma and psychological symptoms. Traumatic events were not
associated with psychological symptoms among children whose dreams were bizarre,
vivid and active, and involved joyful feelings and happy endings. A mediating model
suggested that exposure to traumatic events was associated with mundane persecution
and unpleasant repetitious dreams. These dysfunctional dreams were, in turn,
associated with poor psychological adjustment. The dynamics of mastery and
compensation dreams in traumatic conditions are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abu Hein, F.
,
Qouta, S.
,
Thabet, A.
, &
El Sarraj, E.
(1993).
Trauma and mental health of children in Gaza
. British Medical Journal, 306,
1129
.
2.
Adam-Silvan, A.
, &
Silvan, M.
(1990).
“A dream is the fulfiment of a wish”: Traumatic dream,
repetition compulsion, and pleasure principle
. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 71,
513-522
.
3.
Anthony, J.E.
(1986).
Terrorizing attacks on children by psychotic parents
. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry,
25,
326-335
.
4.
Baron, R.M.
, &
Kenny, D.A.
(1986).
The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological
research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51,
1173-1182
.
5.
Blagrove, M.
(1992).
Dreams as the reflection of our waking concerns and abilities: A critique
of the problem-solving paradigm in dream research
. Dreaming, 2,
205-218
.
6.
Brown, M.W.
, &
Cudeck, R.
(1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit.
In
A. Bollen
&
J.S. Long
(Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp.
136-162).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
.
7.
Breger, L.
,
Hunter, I.
, &
Lane, R.W.
(1971).
The effect of stress on dreams
. Psychological Issues, VII, Monograph 27.
8.
Cartwright, R.D.
(1983).
Rapid eye movement sleep characteristics during and after mood-disturbing events
. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40,
197-201
.
9.
Cartwright, R.D.
(1984).
Broken dreams: a study of the effects of divorce and depression on dream content
. Psychiatry, 47,
251-259
.
10.
Cartwright, R.D.
(1991).
Dreams that work: The relations of dream incorporation to adaption to
stressful events. Psychological point of view
. Dreaming, 1,
3-9
.
11.
Cartwright, R.D.
, &
Lamberg, L.
(1993). Crisis dreaming: using your dreams to solve your
problems.
New York: Harper/Collins
.
12.
Cartwright, R.D.
, &
Lloyd, S.R.
(1994).
Early REM sleep: A compensatory change in depression?Psychiatry Research, 51,
245-253
.
13.
Cohen, J.
, &
Cohen, P.
(1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for
the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.)
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
14.
De Koninck, J.
, &
Koulack, D.
(1975).
Dream content and adaption to a stressful situation
. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84,
250-260
.
15.
Empson, J.
(1993). Sleep and dreaming.
New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf
.
16.
Eth, S.
, &
Pynoos, R.
(1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder in childhood.
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association
.
17.
Fein, G.
(1981).
Pretend play in childhood: An integrative review
. Child Development, 52,
1095-1118
.
18.
Fleiss, J.L.
(1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions
(2nd ed).
New York: Wiley
.
19.
Foulkes, D.
(1982). Children’s dreams. Longitudinal
studies.
New York: Wiley
.
20.
Foulkes, D.
(1985). Dreaming: A cognitive-psychological analysis.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
21.
Freud, S.
(1953). The interpretation of dreams. In
J. Strachey
(Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition (Vols. 4 and 5).
London: Hogarth Press
. (Original work published 1900.)
22.
Gottschalk, L.A.
,
Winget, C.N.
, &
Gleser, G.G.
(1969). Manual of instructions for using the
Gottschalk-Gleser content analysis scales: Anxiety, hostility, and social
alienation-personal disorganization.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press
.
23.
Greenberg, R.
, &
Pearlman, C.
(1975).
REM sleep and the analytic process: a psychophysiologic bridge
. Psychoanalytical Quarterly, 44,
392-302
.
24.
Hartmann, E.
(1989).
Boundaries of dreams, boundaries of dreamers: Thin and thick boundaries as
a new personality measure
. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa,
14,
557-560
.
25.
Hartmann, E.
(1991).
Dream that work or dream that poison? What does dreaming do? And editorial essay
. Dreaming, 1,
23-25
.
26.
Hartmann, E.
(1995).
Making connections in a safe place: Is dreaming psychotherapy?Dreaming, 5,
213-228
.
27.
Hobson, J.A.
(1990).
Sleep and dreaming
. Journal of Neuroscience, 10,
371-382
.
28.
Holpf, H.H.
(1985).
Traume in der Behandlung von Kindern and Jugendlichen mit pre-oedipalen Störungen
. Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie [Dreams in
psychotherapy of pre-oedipal-disturbed children and adolescents],
34,
154-160
.
29.
Horowitz, M.J.
(1986).
Stress-response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders
. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37,
241-249
.
30.
Horowitz, M.J.
,
Stinson, C.
, &
Field, N.
(1991).
Natural disasters and stress response syndromes
. Psychiatric Annals, 21,
556-562
.
31.
Hoyle, R.H.
, &
Smith, G.T.
(1994).
Formulating clinical research hypotheses as structural equation models: a
conceptual overview
. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62,
429-440
.
32.
Hunt, H.T.
(1989). The multiplicity of dreams: A cognitive psychological
perspective.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press
.
33.
The New English Bible
. (1970). The Book of Job (pp.
560-578).
Oxford and Cambridge, UK: Oxford University
Press and Cambridge University Press
.
34.
Jöreskog, K.G.
, &
Sörbom, D.
(1981). LISREL. Analysis of linear structural relationships
by the method of maximum likehood.
Uppsala, Sweden: Department of Statistics,
University of Uppsala
.
35.
Kaminer, H.
, &
Lavie, P.
(1991).
Sleep and dreaming in Holocaust survivors: Dramatic decrease in dream
recall in well-adjusted survivors
. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179,
664-669
.
36.
Kashani, J.H.
,
Rosenberg, T.K.
, &
Reid, J.C.
(1989).
Developmental perspectives in child and adolescent depressive symptoms in a
community sample
. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146,
871-875
.
37.
Kostelny, K.
, &
Garbarino, J.
(1994).
Coping with the consequences of living in danger: the case of Palestinian
children and youth
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
17,
595-611
.
38.
Kramer, M.
(1993). The selective mood regulatory function of
dreaming: An update and revision. In
A. Moffit
,
M. Kramer
, &
R. Hoffman
, (Eds.), The functions of dreaming (pp.
139-195).
Albany: SUNY
.
39.
Kramer, M.
,
Schoen, L.
, &
Kinney, L.
(1987).
Nightmares in Vietnam veterans
. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis,
15,
67-81
.
40.
Macksound, M.
,
Aber, L.
,
Dyregrov, A.
, &
Raundalen, M.
(1990). Post-traumatic stress reaction checklist for
children.
Columbia University: Center for the Study of
Human Rights, Project on Children and War
.
41.
Macksound, M.
,
Aber, L.
, &
Cohen, I.
(1996). Assessing the impact of war on children.
In
R.J. Apfel
&
B. Simon
(Eds.), Minefields in their hearts. The mental health of children in war
and communal violence (pp. 218-230).
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press
.
42.
McClelland, G.H.
, &
Judd, C.M.
(1993).
Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects
. Psychological Bulletin, 114,
376-390
.
43.
Nader, K.O.
,
Pynoos, R.S.
,
Fairbanks, L.A.
,
Al-Ajeel, M.
, &
Al-Asfour, A.
(1993).
A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait
following the Gulf crisis
. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32,
407-416
.
44.
Nielsen, T.A.
,
Kuiken, D.L.
, &
McGregor, D.L.
(1989).
Effects of dream affect: awareness of feelings, Rorschach movement, and
facial EMG
. Sleep, 12,
277-286
.
45.
Pedhazur. E.J.
, &
Pedhazur Schmelkin, L.
(1991). Measurement, design, and analysis. An integrated
approach.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
46.
Punamäki, R.L.
(1996).
Can ideological commitment protect children’s well-being in
conditions of political violence?Child Development, 67,
55-69
.
47.
Punamäki, R.L.
(1997).
Determinants and mental health effects of dream recall among children
living in traumatic conditions
. Dreaming, 7 (December).
48.
Punamäki, R.L.
(in press).
Correspondence between waking-time coping and dream content
. Journal of Mental Imagery.
49.
Punamäki, R.L.
&
Puhakka, T.
(1997).
Determinants and effectiveness of children’s coping with
political violence
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
21,
349-370
.
50.
Punamäki, R.L.Qouta, S.
, &
El Sarraj, E.
(1997).
Relationships between traumatic events, children’s gender and
political activity, and perceptions of parenting styles
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
21,
91-109
.
51.
Pynoos, R.S.
, &
Nader, K.
(1988).
Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to
community violence: Research implications
. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1,
4-9
.
52.
Qouta, S.
,
Punamäki, R.L.
, &
El Sarraj, E.
(1995).
Relations between traumatic experiences, activity and cognitive and
emotional responses among Palestinian children
. International Journal of Psychology, 30,
289-304
.
53.
Qouta, S.
,
Punamäki, R.L.
, &
El Sarraj, E.
(1996).
House demolition and mental health: the victims and witnesses
. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 6,
202-210
.
54.
Rofe, Y.
, &
Lewin, I.
(1982). The effect of war environment on dreams and dream
habits. In
Milgram, N.A.
(Ed.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 8, pp.
67-79).
Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere
.
55.
Ross, R.J.
,
Ball, W.A.
,
Sullivan, K.A.
, &
Caroff, S.N.
(1989).
Sleep disturbance as the hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder
. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146,
697-707
.
56.
Rousso, J.
, &
Gross, A.
(1988).
Talking with young children about their dreams: How to listen and what to
listen for
. Young Children, 43,
70-74
.
57.
Shakespeare, W.
(1971). Henry IV. A concordance to the text of the first
quarto of 1600 Shakespeare concordances (Ed.
T.H. Howard-Hill
).
Oxford: Oxford University Press
.
58.
Shakespeare, W.
(1952). King Lear (Ed.
M. Kenneth
) (8th edition revised and reset).
London: Methuen
.
59.
Sulkunen, P.
, &
Kekäläinen, O.
(1992). WP-index, A program of analysis of qualitative
data.
Helsinki: Gaudeamus
. (In Finnish)
60.
Summerfield, D.
(1993).
Health and human rights in Gaza
. British Medical Journal, 306,
1416
.
61.
Stewart, D.W.
, &
Koulack, D.
(1993).
The function of dreams in adaption to stress over time
. Dreaming, 3,
259-268
.
62.
Terr, L.
(1981).
Psychic trauma in children: observations following the Chowchilla schoolbus kidnapping
. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138,
15-19
.
63.
Terr, L.
(1990). Too scared to cry.
New York: Basic Books
.
64.
Terr, L.
(1991).
Childhood traumas: an outline and overview
. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148,
10-20
.
65.
Weiss, J.
(1992). Dreams and their various purposes. In
M.R. Lansky
(Ed.), Essential papers on dreams (pp.
187-209).
New York: New York University Press
.
66.
Wilson, J.P.
(1989). Trauma, transformation, and healing. An integrative
approach to theory, research, and post-traumatic therapy.
New York: Brunner/Mazel
.
67.
Winnicott, D.W.
(1960).
The theory of the parent-infant relationship
. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 41,
585-595
.
68.
Wright, J.
, &
Koulack, D.
(1987).
Dreams and contemporary stress. A disruption-avoidance-adaptation model
. Sleep, 10,
172-181
