This study explored, identified, and described “cultural models”
of parenting shared by Parisian parents of infants and young children from birth to
age 3 years. A questionnaire was constructed in the field to assess levels of
importance attached to 50 practices associated with the daily care of infants and
young children. Data were collected from a sample of 455 Parisian mothers and
fathers and principal components analysis was used to identify three reliable
components of parenting beliefs that constituted cultural models:
“Awakening and exposing child to diverse stimuli”,
“Ensuring proper presentation of child”, and
“Responding to and bonding with child”. Four sociodemographic
variables predicted variation in mean importance scores associated with each of the
three cultural models: parent’s age, gender, education level, and
religiosity, although the magnitudes of these associations were small. The
discussion highlights the strengths and limitations of this method and offers
suggestions for further research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Affifi, A.
, &
Clark, V.
(1990). Computer-aided multivariate analysis (2nd
ed.).
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
.
2.
Bacus, A.
(1991). Votre bebe de 1 jour à 1 an: Le livre de
bord de la jeune maman [Your baby from one day to one year: The young
mother’s manual].
Alleux, Belgium: Marabout
.
3.
Baer, D.
,
Curtis, J.
,
Grabb, E.
, &
Johnston, W.
(1996). What values do people prefer in children? A
comparative analysis of survey evidence from fifteen countries. In
C. Seligman
,
J.M. Olson
, &
M.P. Zanna
(Eds.), The psychology of values: The Ontario symposium on personality
and social psychology (Vol. 8, pp.
299–328).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
4.
Bartlett, M.S.
(1950).
Tests of significance in factor analysis
. British Journal of Psychology, 3,
77–85
.
5.
Best, D.L.
,
House, A.S.
,
Barnard, A.
, &
Spicker, B.S.
(1994).
Parent-child interactions in France, Germany, and Italy: The effects of
gender and culture
. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 25,
181–193
.
6.
Bornstein, M.H.
,
Tamis-LeMonda, C.S.
,
Pêcheux, M.-G.
, &
Rahn, C.W.
(1991).
Mother and infant activity and interaction in France and in the United
States: A comparative study
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
14,
21–43
.
7.
Bornstein, M.H.
,
Tamis-LeMonda, C.S.
,
Tal, J.
,
Ludeman, P.
,
Toda, S.
,
Rahn, C.W.
,
Pêcheux, M.
,
Hiroshi, A.
, &
Vardi, D.
(1992).
Maternal responsiveness to infants in three societies: The United States,
France, and Japan
. Child Development, 63,
808–821
.
8.
Bornstein, M.H.
(1995). Parenting infants. In
M.H. Bornstein
(Vol. Ed.), Handbook of Parenting: Vol. 1. Children and parenting
(pp. 3–39).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
9.
Bornstein, M.H.
(2000). Parenting infants. In
D.J. Osofsky
&
H.E. Fitzgerald
(Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of Infant Mental Health (Vol. 3, pp.
211–239).
New York: Wiley
.
10.
Bornstein, M.H.
,
Haynes, O.M.
,
Azuma, H.
,
Galperin, C.
,
Maital, S.
,
Ogina, Misako
,
Painter, K.
,
Pascual, L.
,
Pêcheux, M.-G.
,
Rahn, C.
,
Toda, S.
,
Venuti, P.
,
Vyt, A.
, &
Wright, B.
(1998).
A cross-national study of self-evaluations and attributions in parenting:
Argentina, Belgium, France, Israel, Italy, Japan, and the United States
. Developmental Psychology, 34,
662–676
.
11.
Bornstein, M.H.
,
Tamis-LeMonda, C.S.
,
Pascual, L.
,
Haynes, O.M.
,
Painter, K.M.
,
Galperin, C.Z.
, &
Pêcheux, M.-G.
(1996).
Ideas about parenting in Argentina, France and the United States
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
19,
347–367
.
12.
Bril, B.
,
Zack, M.
, &
Nkounkou-Hombessa, E.
(1989).
Ethnotheories of development and education: A view from different cultures
. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 4,
307–318
.
13.
Catell, R.B.
(1966).
The scree test for the number of factors
. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1,
141–161
.
14.
Chao, R.
(1995).
Chinese and European American cultural models of the self reflected in
mother’s childrearing beliefs
. Ethos, 23,
328–354
.
15.
Coche, R.
, &
Roué, A.
(1993). L’Apaisment des nourrissons en Picardie
et en Bretagne: Étude contemporaine en milieu rural [Soothing infants
in Picardy and Britany: Contemporary study in a rural setting]. In
H. Stork
(Ed.), Les rituels du coucher de l’enfant: Variations
culturelles [Children’s bedtime rituals: Cultural variations]
(pp. 177–212).
Paris: ESF éditeur
.
16.
Cole, M.
(1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future
discipline.
Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press
.
17.
D’Andrade, R.
(1987). A folk model of the mind. In
D. Holland
&
N. Quinn
(Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp.
113–148).
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
18.
David, M.
(1994). L’enfant de 0 à 2 ans: Vie
affective et problèmes familiaux [The child from zero to two years:
Affective life and familial problems]. Enfances/Initiation.
Toulouse, France: Privat
.
19.
Dolto, F.
(1985). La cause des enfants [The cause of children].
Paris: Editions Robert Laffont
.
20.
Dolto, F.
(1987). Tout est langage [Everything is language].
Paris: Vertiges du Nord/Carrere
.
21.
Easterbrooks, M.A.
, &
Goldberg, W.A.
(1984).
Toddler development in the family: Impact of father involvement and
parenting characteristics
. Child Development, 55,
740–752
.
22.
Field, T.M.
,
Widmayer, S.M.
,
Stringer, S.
, &
Ignatoff, E.
(1980).
Teenage, low-class, Black mothers and their preterm infants: An
intervention and development follow-up
. Child Development, 51,
426–436
.
23.
Floyd, F.J.
, &
Widaman, K.F.
(1995).
Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments
. Psychological Assessment, 7,
286–299
.
24.
Fox, J.
(1997). Applied regression analysis, linear models, and
related methods.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
.
25.
Gildea, M.C.-L.
,
Glidewell, J.C.
, &
Kantor, M.B.
(1961). Maternal attitudes and general adjustment in
school children. In
J.C. Glidewell
(Ed.), Parental attitudes and behavior.
Springfield, IL: Thomas
.
26.
Goodnow, J.
(1988).
Parents’ ideas, actions, and feelings: Models and methods from
developmental and social psychology
. Child Development, 59,
286–320
.
27.
Goodnow, J.
(1996). From household practices to parents’
ideas about work and interpersonal relationships. In
S. Harkness
&
C.M. Super
(Eds.), Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their origins,
expressions, and consequences (pp.
313–344).
New York: Guilford Press
.
28.
Goodnow, J.
, &
Collins, W.A.
(1990). Development according to parents: The nature, sources
and consequences of parents’ ideas.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
29.
Greenfield, P.
(1994). Independence and interdependence as developmental
scripts: Implications for the theory, research, and practice. In
P.M. Greenfield
&
R.R. Cocking
(Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp.
1–37).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
30.
Grossmann, K.E.
, &
Grossmann, K.
(1981). Parent-infant attachment relationships in
Bielefeld. In
K. Immelman
,
G. Barlow
,
L. Petrovich
, &
M. Main
(Eds.), Behavioral development: The Bielefeld interdisciplinary
project.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
31.
Grusec, J.
,
Hastings, P.
, &
Mammone, N.
(1994). Parenting cognitions and relationship
schemas. In
W. Damon
(Series Ed.) &
J. Smetana
(Vol. Ed.), New directions for child development: No. 66. Beliefs about
parenting: Origins and developmental implications (pp.
5–19).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
.
32.
Gueniou, I.
,
Tanguy, F.
, &
Sabatier, C.
(1993).
Les conceptions de mères des minorites ethniques de Rennes
(immigrees et ressortissantes des Dom-Tom) à propos du
developpement du tout petit [Maternal conceptions of infant development
among immigrant minorities living in Rennes (immigrating from the Dom-Tom]
. Proceedings of the Xth Colloquium of the Francophone Group for
the Study of the Young Child. Laboratoire de Psychologie de
l’Education. Université de Rennes 2, France.
33.
Harkness, S.
, &
Super, C.M.
(1995). Culture and parenting. In
M.H. Bornstein
(Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 2. Biology and ecology of
parenting (pp. 211–234).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
34.
Harkness, S.
, &
Super, C.M.
(1996). Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their
origins, expressions, and consequences.
New York: Guilford Press
.
35.
Harkness, S.
,
Super, C.M.
, &
Keefer, C.H.
(1992). Learning to be an American parent: How cultural
models gain directive force. In
R. D’Andrade
&
C. Strauss
(Eds.), Human motives and cultural models (pp.
163–178).
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
36.
Harkness, S.
,
Super, C.M.
,
Keefer, C.H.
,
Raghavan, C.S.
, &
Kipp, E.H.
(1995). Ask the doctor: The negotiation of cultural models
in American parent-pediatrician discourse. In
S. Harkness
&
C.M. Super
(Eds.), Parents’ cultural belief systems (pp.
289–310).
New York: Guilford Press
.
37.
Harkness, S.
,
Super, C.M.
, &
van Tijen, N.
(2000). Individualism and the “Western
Mind” reconsidered: American and Dutch parents’
ethnotheories of the child. In
W. Damon
(Series Ed.) &
S. Harkness
,
C. Raeff
, &
C.M. Super
(Vol. Eds.), New directions for child and adolescent development: Vol.
87. Variability in the social construction of the child (pp.
23–39).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
.
38.
Hoffman, L.W.
, &
Youngblade, L.M.
(1998).
Maternal employment, morale, and parenting style: Social class comparisons
. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19,
389–413
.
39.
Hofstede, G.
(1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the
mind.
London: McGraw-Hill
.
40.
Holden, G.
(1995). Parental attitudes toward childrearing.
In
M.H. Bornstein
(Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3. Status and social conditions of
parenting (pp. 359–392).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
41.
Holden, G.
, &
Edwards, L.
(1989).
Parental attitudes toward child rearing: Instruments, issues, and implications
. Psychological Bulletin, 106,
29–58
.
42.
Holland, D.
, &
Quinn, N.
(1987). Cultural models in language and thought.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
43.
Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques
(1992). Les enfants de moins de six ans: Contours et
caractères [Children under six: Trends and traits].
Paris: Hachette
.
44.
Jones, R.K.
, &
Brayfield, A.
(1997).
Life’s greatest joy? European attitudes toward the centrality of children
. Social Forces, 751239–1270
.
45.
Kagitçibasi, C.
(1996).
The autonomous-relational self: A new synthesis
. European Psychologist, 1,
180–186
.
46.
Kaiser, H.F.
(1960).
The application of electronic computers to factor analysis
. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20,
141–151
.
47.
Kline, P.
(1994). An easy guide to factor analysis.
London: Routledge
.
48.
Kochanska, G.
,
Kuczynski, L.
, &
Radke-Yarrow, M.
(1989).
Correspondence between mothers’ self-reported and observed
child-rearing practices
. Child Development, 60,
56–63
.
49.
Kohn, M.L.
(1969). Class and conformity: A study in values.
Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press
.
50.
Kohn, M.L.
(1979). The effects of social class on parental values and
practices. In
D. Reiss
&
H. Hoffman
(Eds.), The American family: Dying or developing (pp.
45–68).
New York: Plenum
.
51.
Kohn, M.L.
,
Naoi, A.
,
Shoenbach, C.
,
Schooler, C.
, &
Slomeczynski, K.M.
(1990).
Position in the class structure and psychological functioning: A
comparative analysis of the United States, Japan, and Poland
. American Journal of Sociology, 90,
964–1008
.
52.
Lambert, W.
,
Hamers, J.
, &
Frasure-Smith, N.
(1979). Child-rearing values: A cross-national study.
New York: Praeger Special Studies
.
53.
Lawton, J.
,
Coleman, M.
,
Boger, R.
,
Pease, D.
,
Galejs, I.
,
Poresky, R.
, &
Looney, E.
(1983).
A Q-sort assessment of parents’ beliefs about parenting in six
midwestern states
. Infant Mental Health Journal, 4,
344–351
.
54.
Lebra, T.
(1976). Japanese patterns of behavior.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
.
55.
Le Camus, J.
(1987).
Les pratiques de nursing chez les parents d’enfants de
crèche [Infant care practices of parents of preschool children]
. Enfance, 40,
245–261
.
56.
LeVine, R.
(1988). Human parental care: Universal goals, cultural
strategies, individual behavior. In
W. Damon
(Series Ed.) &
R.A. LeVine
,
P.M. Miller
, &
M.M. West
(Vol. Eds.), New directions for child develoment: No. 40. Parental
behavior in diverse societies (pp. 5–12).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
.
57.
LeVine, R.
,
Dixon, S.
,
LeVine, S.
,
Richman, A.
,
Leiderman, P.H.
,
Keefer, C.
, &
Brazelton, B.
(1994). Childcare and culture: Lessons from Africa.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
58.
Le Wita, B.
(1994). French bourgeois culture [Ni vue, ni connue: Approche
é thnographique de la culture bourgeoise] (J.A. Underwood,
Trans.).
Paris: Cambridge University Press
. (Original work published 1988).
59.
Markus, H.
, &
Kitayama, S.
(1991).
Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation
. Psychological Review, 98,
224–253
.
60.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.
(1992). Parents’ beliefs and
children’s personal-social development. In
I. Sigel
,
A. McGillicuddy-DeLisi
, &
J. Goodnow
(Eds.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for
children (pp. 115–142).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
61.
Métraux, R.
, &
Mead, M.
(1954). Themes in French culture: A preface to a study of
French community.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, Hoover
Institute Studies
.
62.
Miller, S.
(1988).
Parents’ beliefs about children’s cognitive development
. Child Development, 59,
259–285
.
63.
Moss, H.A.
, &
Jones, S.J.
(1977). Relations between maternal attitudes and maternal
behavior as a function of social class. In
P.H. Liederman
,
S.R. Tulkin
, &
A. Rosenfeld
(Eds.). Culture and infancy: Variations in the human experience
(pp. 439–467).
New York: Academic Press
.
64.
Murphey, D.
(1992).
Constructing the child: Relations between parents’ beliefs and
child outcomes
. Developmental Review, 12,
199–232
.
65.
Nicaud, V.
,
Robine, J.M.
,
Maguin, P.
, &
Hatton, F.
(1987).
Rôle du facteur culturel dans les pratiques éducatives
des mères des jeunes enfants [The role of the cultural factor in
the educational practices of mothers of young children]
. Pediatrie Preventive et Sociale, 4,
305–310
.
66.
Ninio, A.
(1988).
The effects of cultural background, sex, and parenthood on beliefs about
the timetable of cognitive development in infancy
. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34,
369–388
.
67.
Ninio, A.
, &
Rinott, N.
(1988).
Fathers’ involvement in the care of their infants and their
attributions of cognitive competence to infants
. Child Development, 59,
652–663
.
68.
Palacios, J.
,
Gonzalez, M.
, &
Moreno, M.
(1992). Stimulating the child in the zone of proximal
development: The role of parents’ ideas. In
I. Sigel
,
A. McGillicuddy-DeLisi
, &
J. Goodnow
(Eds.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for
children (pp. 71–94).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
69.
Parks, P.L.
, &
Smeriglio, V.L.
(1986).
Relationships among parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home
and infant development
. Family Relations: Journal of Applied Family and Child
Studies, 35,
411–416
.
70.
Pernoud, L.
(1981). J’elève mon enfant [Bringing up
my child].
Paris: Pierre Horay Editeur
.
Prêteur, Y.
, &
Louvet-Schmauss, E.
(1991).
Conceptions éducatives parentales vis-à-vis de
l’apprentissage de la lecture chez l’enfant
d’age préscolaire: Étude comparative selon
deux systèmes socio-culturels et politiques (R.F.A. et France)
[Parents’ educational concepts regarding the preschool
child’s reading apprenticeship: Comparative study in two
sociocultural and political systems (F.R.G. and France)]
. Enfance, 1,
83–97
.
73.
Ramstein, S.
(1989). Un pediatre reconte [A paediatrician recounts].
Paris: Hatier
.
74.
Reid, B.V.
, &
Valsiner, J.
(1986).
Consistency, praise, and love: Folk theories of American parents
. Ethos, 14,
282–304
.
75.
Richman, A.
,
Miller, P.
, &
Solomon, M.
(1988). The socialization of infants in suburban
Boston. In
W. Damon
(Series Ed.) &
R. LeVine
,
P. Miller
, &
M. West
(Vol. Eds.), New directions for child development: No. 40. Parental
behavior in diverse societies (pp. 65–74).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
.
76.
Rickard, K.M.
,
Graziano, W.
, &
Forehand, R.
(1984).
Parental expectations and childhood deviance in clinic-referred and
non-clinic children
. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 13,
179–186
.
77.
Robin, M.
,
Josse, D.Casati, I.
,
Kheroua, H.
, &
Tourette, C.
(1994).
Dress and physical environments of twins at 1 year: French
mothers’ attitudes and practices
. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 12,
241–248
.
78.
Rovine, M.J.
, &
Delaney, M.
(1990). Missing data estimation in developmental
research. In
A. von Eye
(Ed.), Statistical methods in longitudinal research: Principles and
structuring change (pp. 35–79).
San Diego, CA: Academic Press
.
79.
Segal, M.
(1985). A study of maternal beliefs and values within the
context of an intervention program. In
I.E. Sigel
(Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for
children (pp. 271–286).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
80.
Sharma, S.
(1996). Applied multivariate techniques.
New York: Wiley
.
81.
Shweder, R.
(1990). Cultural psychology—what is it?
In
J.W. Stigler
,
R.A. Shweder
, &
G. Herdt
(Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human
development (pp. 1–43).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
82.
Sigel, I.
(1992). The belief-behavior connection: A resolvable
dilemma? In
I. Sigel
,
A. McGillicuddy-DeLisi
, &
J. Goodnow
(Eds.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for
children (pp. 433–456).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
83.
Solomon, M.
(1993). Transmission of cultural goals: Social network
influences on infant socialization. In
J. Demick
,
K. Bursik
, &
R. DiBiase
(Eds.), Parental development (pp.
135–156).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
84.
Sjögren-De Beauchaine, A.
(1988). The Bourgeoisie in the dining room: Meal ritual and
cultural process in Parisian families of today.
Stockholm: Institutet for folklivsforskning
.
85.
Stevens, J.
(1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social
sciences (3rd ed.).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
86.
Stevenson-Hinde, J.
(1998).
Parenting in different cultures: Time to focus
. Developmental Psychology, 34,
698–700
.
87.
Stork, H.E.
(1996, September).
Troubles de sommeil chez le nourrisson [Infant sleeping disorders]
. Paper and poster presentation at “ The Growing
Mind” conference at the occasion of the centenary of Jean
Piaget’s birth. Université de
Genève, Switzerland.
88.
Stork, H.
(1986). Enfances Indiennes: Etude de psychologie
transculturelle et comparee de jeune enfant [Indian childhoods: Transcultural
and comparative psychological study of the young child].
Paris: Paidos/Bayard
.
89.
Stork, H.
(1995). Modèles familiaux et relations
précoces: Aspects culturels et comparatifs [Family models and early
relationships: Cultural and comparative aspects]. In
M. Glaumaud-Carr
é &
M. Manuélian-Ravet
(Eds.), Le bebe et les apprentissages: Genèse et
incidences.
Paris: Syros
.
90.
Strauss, C.
, &
Quinn, N.
(1997). A cognitive theory of cultural meaning.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
91.
Super, C.M.
, &
Harkness, S.
(1986).
The development niche: A conceptualization of the interface of child and culture
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
9,
546–569
.
92.
Super, C.M.
, &
Harkness, S.
(1997). The cultural structuring of child
development. In
J.W. Berry
,
P.R. Dasen
, &
T.S. Saraswathi
(Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 2. Basic processes
and human development (2nd ed., pp.
3–39).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
.
93.
Super, C.M.
,
Harkness, S.
, &
van Tijen, N.
(1996). The three R’s of Dutch childrearing and
the socialization of infant arousal. In
S. Harkness
&
C.M. Super
(Eds.), Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their origins,
expressions, and consequences (pp.
447–466).
New York: Guilford Press
.
94.
Tabachnick, B.G.
, &
Fidell, L.S.
(1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd
ed.).
New York: Harper Collins
.
95.
Tinsley, H.E.A.
, &
Tinsley, D.J.
(1987).
Uses of factor analysis in counseling psychology research
. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34,
414–424
.
96.
Tourette, C.
,
Robin, M.
, &
Josse, D.
(1989).
Treating twins as individuals: Maternal educative practices
. European Journal of Psychology and Education, 4,
269–283
.
97.
Triandis, H.C.
(1989).
The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts
. Psychological Review, 96,
506–520
.
98.
Triandis, H.C.
,
Bontempo, R.
,
Villareal, M.J.
,
Asai, M.
, &
Lucca, N.
(1988).
Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54,
323–338
.
99.
Tulkin, S.R.
, &
Cohler, B.C.
(1973).
Childrearing attitudes and mother-child interaction in the first year of life
. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 19,
95–106
.
100.
Valsiner, R.
, &
Litvinovic, G.
(1996). Processes of generalization in parental
reasoning. In
S. Harkness
&
C.M. Super
(Eds.), Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their origins,
expressions, and consequences (pp. 56–82).
New York: Guilford Press
.
101.
Weisz, J.R.
,
Rothbaum, F.M.
, &
Blackburn, T.C.
(1984).
Standing out and standing in: The psychology of control in America and Japan
. American Psychologist, 39,
955–969
.
102.
Wolfenstein, M.
(1955). French parents take their children to the
park. In
M. Mead
&
M. Wolfenstein
(Eds.), Childhood in contemporary cultures (pp.
99–117).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
