This study examined links between parents (189 mothers, 153 fathers) adjustment and children's externalising behaviour problems (97 girls; 92 boys) representative of the general population. Structural equation modelling was used to examine models that included “direct” and “indirect” pathways. Externalising behaviour problems in children were strongly related to parental adjustment difficulties. Maternal antisocial behaviour and marital hostility were linked to sons’ and daughters’ externalising behaviour problems via dysfunctional child-rearing practices. Maternal antisocial behaviour, however, was not fully mediated by dysfunctional parenting. For fathers, the pattern related to externalising problems in sons was as those specified for mothers. The pattern did not appear relevant for daughters. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of adjustment patterns with regard to the sex composition of the parent-child dyads.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AchenbachT.M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavioral Checklist and 1991 profile.Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.
2.
ArcherJ. (1992). Childhood gender roles: Social context and organization. In McGurkH. (Ed.), Childhood social development Contemporary perspectives (pp. 31–61). Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
3.
BanduraA. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4.
BanduraA. (1977). Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5.
BankL., DishionT., SkinnerM & PattersonG.R. (1990). Method variance in structural equation modeling: Living with “glop”. In PattersonG.R. (Ed.), Aggression and depression in family interactions (pp. 247–280). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6.
BankL., & PattersonG.R. (1992). The use of structural equation modeling in combining data from different types of assessment. In RosenJ.C., & McReynoldsP. (Eds), Advances in psychological assessment (Vol. 8, pp. 41–74). New York: Plenum Press.
7.
BaumrindD. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use.Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95.
8.
BentlerP.M. (1989). EQS: A structural equations program manual.Los Angeles, CA: BMDP Statistical Software Inc.
9.
BentlerP.M. (1990). Fit indexes. Lagrange Multipliers, constraint changes, and incomplete data in structural models.Multivariate Behavior and Research, 25, 163–172.
10.
BiermanK.L. (1987). The clinical significance and assessment of poor peer relations: Peer neglect versus peer rejection.Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 8, 233–240.
11.
BukowskiW.M., GauzeC., HozaB., & NewcombA.F. (1993). Differences and consistency between same-sex and other-sex peer relatonships during early adolescence.Developmental Psychology, 29, 255–263.
12.
ByrneB.M. (Ed.), (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic concepts, applications and programming.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
13.
DaviesP.T., & WindleM. (1997). Gender-specific pathways between depressive symptoms, family discord, and adolescent adjustment.Developmental Psychology, 33, 657–668.
14.
DishionT.J., PattersonG.R., & GrieslerP.C. (1994). Peer adaptations in the development of antisocial behavior: A confluence model. In HuesmannL.R. (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 61–95). New York: Plenum.
15.
EmeryR., & O'LearyK.D. (1982). Children's perceptions of marital and behavior problems of boys and girls.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 11–24.
16.
EronL.D., HuesmannL.R., & ZelliA. (1991). The role of parental variables in the learning of aggression. In PeplerD.J., & RubinK.H. (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 169–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
17.
FagotB.E., & LeveL.D. (1998). Teacher ratings of externalizing behavior at school entry for boys and girls: Similar early predictors and different correlates.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 4, 555–566.
18.
ForgatchM.S., PattersonG.R., & SkinnerM.L. (1988). A mediational model for the effect of divorce on antisocial boys. In HetheringtonE.M., & ArestehJ.D. (Eds.), Impact of divorce, single parenting, and step-parenting on children (pp. 135–154). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
19.
FrickP.J., LaheyB.B., ChristM.A., & LoeberR. (1991). History of the childhood behavior problems in biological relatives of boys with attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder and conduct disorder.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 445–451.
20.
GoettingA. (1994). The parenting-crime connection.Journal of Primary Prevention, 14, 169–184.
21.
GrychJ.H., & FinchmanF.D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework.Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290.
22.
HartupW.W. (1978). Perspectives on child and family interaction. Past, present, and future. In LernerR.M., & SpanierG.B. (Eds.), Child influences on marital and family interaction: A life-span perspective (pp. 23–46). San Francisco, CA: Academic Press.
23.
HenggelerS.W., EdwardsJ., & BordiumC.M. (1987). The family relations of female juvenile delinquents.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 199–209.
24.
HetheringtonE.M., & ClingempeelW.G. (1992). Coping with marital transitions: A family systems perspective.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 57 (Serial No. 227).
25.
HopsH. (1995). Age- and gender-specific effects of parental depression: A commentary.Developmental Psychology, 31, 428–431.
26.
IsleyS.L., O'NeilR., ClatfelterD., & ParkeR.D. (1999). Parent and child expressed affect and children's social competence: Modeling direct and indirect pathways.Developmental Psychology, 35, 547–566.
27.
JohnsonP.L., & O'LearyK.D. (1987). Parental behavior patterns and conduct disorders in girls.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 573–581.
28.
JourilesE.N., BarlingJ., & O'LearyS.G. (1987). Predicting child behavior problems in marital violent families.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 165–173.
29.
JourilesE.N., PfiffnerL.P., & O'LearyS.G. (1988). Marital conflict, parenting and toddler conduct problems.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 197–206.
30.
KavanaghK., & HopsH. (1994). Good girls? Bad boys? Gender and development as contexts for diagnoses and treatment. In OllendickT.H., & PrintzR. (Eds.), Advances in clinical and child psychology (Vol. 16, pp. 45–79). New York: Plenum.
31.
KimJ.E., HetheringtonE.M., & ReissD. (1999). Associations among family relationships, antisocial peers and adolescents externalizing behaviors: Gender and family type differences.Child Development, 70, 1209–1230.
32.
LaheyB.B., HartdagenS.E., FrickP.J., McBurnetteK., ConnorR., & HyndG.W. (1988). Conduct disorder: Parsing the confounded relation to parental divorce and antisocial personality.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 334–337.
33.
LambM.E. (1997). The role of the father in child development (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
34.
LeblancM., McDuffP., & FréchetteM. (1990). MASPAQ. Manual sur des mesures de l'adaptation sociale et personelle pour les adolescents québecois.Montréal: Groupe de recherche sur l'inadaptation psychosociale chez l'enfant, Université de Montréal.
35.
LewisM. (1981). The effects of parental firm control: A reinterpretation of findings.Psychological Bulletin, 90, 547–563.
36.
LoeberR. (1990). Development and risk factors of juvenile antisocial behavior and delinquency.Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 1–41.
37.
LoeberR., & Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1986). Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In TonyM., & MorrisN. (Eds.), Crime and justice (Vol. 7, pp. 219–339). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
38.
LoeberR., & Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1998). Development of juvenile aggression and violence: Some common misconceptions and controversies.American Psychologist, 53, 242–259.
39.
LyttonH., & RomneyD.M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296.
40.
MaccobyE.E. (1998). The two sexes: growing up apart, coming together.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
41.
MathijssenJ.J.J.P., KootH.M., VerhulstF.C., De BruynE.E.J., & OudJ.H.L. (1997). Family functioning and child psychopathology: Individual versus composite family scores.Family Relations, 46, 247–255.
42.
MaughanB., PicklesA., & QuintonD. (1995). Parental hostility, childhood behavior, and adult social functioning. In McCordJ. (Ed.), Coercian and punishment in long-term perspectives (pp. 34–59). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
43.
McCordW., & McCordJ. (1959). Origins of crime.New York: Columbia University Press.
44.
OlsonD.H., & HolmesW.M. (1986). Youth at risk: Adolescents and maltreatment.Children and Youth Services Review, 8, 13–35.
45.
PattersonG.R. (1976). The aggressive child: Victim and architect of a coercive system. In HamerlynckL.A., HandyL.C., & MashE.J. (Eds.), Behavior modification with families: Theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 276–316). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
46.
PattersonG.R. (1982). Coercive family processes.Eugene, OR: Castalia.
47.
PattersonG.R., CapaldiD., & BankL. (1991). An early starter model for predicting delinquency. In PepplerD., & RubinK. (Eds.), The development and treatment of aggression (pp. 139–165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
48.
PattersonG.R., DeBarsysheB.D., & RamseyE. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior.American Psychologist, 44, 329–335.
49.
PattersonG.R., ForgatchM.S., YoergerK.L., & StoolmillerM. (1998). Variables that initiate and maintain an early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending.Development and Psychopathology, 10, 531–547.
50.
PattersonG.R., ReidJ.B., & DishionT.G. (1992). A social interactional approach: Antisocial boys (Vol. 4). Eugene, OR: Oregon Social Learning Center.
51.
PekarikE.G., PrintzR.J., LiebertD.E., WeintraubS., & NealeJ.M. (1976). The pupil evaluation inventory: A sociometric technique for assessing children's social behavior.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 83–97.
52.
PharesV. (1996). Fathers and developmental psychopathology.New York: Wiley.
53.
PharesV., & CompasB. (1992). The roles of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology: Make room for daddy.Psychological Bulletin, 111, 387–412.
54.
PharesV., CompasB., & HowellD.C. (1989). Perspectives on child behavior problems: Comparisons of children's self-reports with parent and teacher reports.Psychological Assessment, 1, 68–71.
55.
PorterB., & O'LearyK.D. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 287–295.
56.
PowersJ.L., & EckenrodeJ. (1988). The maltreatment of adolescents.Child Abuse and Neglect, 12, 189–199.
57.
RaykovT., TomerA., & NesselroadeJ.R. (1991). Reporting structural equation modeling results in psychology and aging: Some proposed guidelines.Psychology and Aging, 6, 499–503.
58.
RobinsL.N. (1966). Deviant children grow up: A sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality.Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
59.
RobinsL.N. (1986). The consequences of conduct disorder in girls. In OlweusD., BlockJ., & Radke-YarrowM. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 385–414). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
60.
RohnerR.P. (1986). The warmth dimension: Foundations of parental acceptance-rejection theory.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
61.
RohnerR.P. (1991). Handbook for the study of parental acceptance and rejection.University of Connecticut, Center for the study of parental acceptance and rejection.
62.
RothbaumF., & WeiszJ.R. (1994). Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 116, 55–74.
63.
SchaeferE.S. (1965). A configurational analysis of children's reports of parent behavior.Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 552–557.
64.
SerbinL.A., MoskowitzD.S., SchwartzmanA.E., & LedinghamJ.E. (1991). Aggressive, withdrawn, and aggressive withdrawn children in adolescence: Into the next generation. In PepplerD., & RubinK. (Eds.), The development and treatment of aggression (pp. 55–67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
65.
Statistic Canada (1992). Income in Canada.Ottawa, Canada: Statistic Canada.
66.
SteinbergL., LambornS.D., DarlingN., MountsN.S., & DornbuschS.M. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families.Child Development, 65, 754–770.
67.
ThorneB. (1986). Boys and girls together … But mostly apart: Gender arrangements in elementary schools. In HartupW.W., & RubinZ. (Eds.), Relationships and development (pp. 167–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
68.
VuchinichS., BankL., & PattersonG.R. (1992). Parenting, peers, and stability of antisocial behavior in preadolescent boys.Developmental Psychology, 28, 510–521.
69.
WangbyM., BergmanL.R., & MagnussonD. (1999). Development of adjustment problems in girls: What syndromes emerge?Child Development, 70, 678–700.
70.
Webster-StrattonC. (1996). Early-onset conduct problems: Does gender make a difference?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 540–551.
71.
Webster-StrattonC., & HammondM. (1999). Marital conflict management skills, parenting style, and early onset-onset conduct problems: Processes and pathways.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 917–927.
72.
WindleM. (1992). A longitudinal study of stress buffering for adolescent problem behaviors.Developmental Psychology, 28, 522–530.
73.
WolfeD.A., & McGeeR. (1994). Dimensions of child maltreatment and their relationship to adolescent adjustment.Development and Psychopathology, 6, 165–181.
74.
YounissJ., & KetterlinusR.D. (1987). Communication and connectedness in mother- and father-adolescent relationships.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 191–197.
75.
Zahn-WaxlerC. (1993). Warriors and worriers: Gender and psychopathology.Development and Psychopathology, 5, 79–89.
76.
ZoccolilloM. (1993). Gender and the development of conduct disorder. Special issue: Toward a developmental perspective on conduct disorder.Development and Psychopathology, 5, 65–78.
77.
ZoccolilloM., PickelsA., QuintonD., & RutterM. (1992). The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder.Psychological Medicine, 22, 971–986.
