This paper examines the increased prevalence of urban terror and its spatial implications. Urban terror concerns territory, space and logistics, and is characterised by low-intensity, ambiguously bounded warfare. It is defined as attacks intentionally directed against non-combatants and key installations located in high-density, continuously developed, diversified environments. The research traces the collective experience of London, Moscow and Istanbul with extended attention paid to Jerusalem. Four patterns of urban terror are identified and used to conduct the analysis. These consist of terrorist attempts to: decontrol urban territory, cause instability and demonstrate vulnerability; launch repetitive attacks on specific spaces in order to create conditions of chaos; achieve proximity and access to targets; and, finally, a response to terror by authorities based on surveillance, partition, closure and shrinkage of urban space. A final section consists of analysing terror's impact on the economy and future of cities.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anglo-Saxon Real Estate Agency (Israel) Ltd ( 2003) Typical prices of second-hand apartments (re-sales) in the jerusalem Area.
2.
BBC News (2003) http://news.bbc.co.uk/ . 20 November.
3.
BBC REPoRTs (2004) http://news.bbc.co.uk/ .
4.
Bfn-Arieh, Y. (1979) A City Reflected in its Times, New Jerusalem: The Beginnings. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben Zvi Publications [in Hebrew].
5.
Bfn-Arieh, Y. and Bartal, I. (1983) The History of Eretz Israel: The Last Phase of Ottoman Rule (1799-1917). Jerusalem: Keter [in Hebrew].
6.
Centre For Monitoring The Impact Of Peace ( 2003) Palestinian Authority Textbooks (available at: http://www.matckh.org/articles/center4mip.htm).
7.
Coaffee, J. (2003) Terrorism, Risk and the City. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House.
8.
Corporation Of London (2000) London-New York Study. The Economics of Two Great Cities at the Millennium . London: Government Office of London .
9.
Cullen, J.B. and Levitt, S.D. (1999) Crime, urban flight and the consequences for cities , The Review of Economics and Statistics, 81(2), pp. 159-169.
10.
Cutter, S.L., Richardson, D.B., Wilbanks, T.J. (2003) The Geographical Dimensions of Terrorism. New York: Routledge.
11.
Davis, D. and Weinstein, D. (2001) Bones, bombs and breakpoints. Unpublished paper , Columbia University and the National Bureau of Economic Research.
12.
Devol, R., Bedroussian, A., Fogelbach, F. et al. (2002) The Impact of September 11 on U.S. Metropolitan Economies. Research Report, The Milken Institute, Los Angeles, CA.
13.
Dichter, A. (2003) Security chief names Iran as world NI terror state; says security fence is vital. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAHO02r0 ).
14.
Dougherty, G. and Kupelian, D. (2001) Children of the Jihad. Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) (available at www.memri.org).
15.
Enders, W. and Sandler, T. (2000) Is transnational terrorism becoming more threatening? A time-series investigation, Journal of Conflict Resolution , 44(3), pp. 307-332.
16.
Fleischer, A. and Buccola, S. (2002) War, terror, and the tourism market in Israel, Applied Economics, 34, pp. 1335-1343.
17.
Friedman, J. (2002) City of fear or open city, American Planning Association Journal, 68(3), pp. 237-243.
18.
Ganor, B. (2002) Terror as a strategy of psychological warfare. International Institute for Counter-terrorism, Herzlia , Israel (available at http://www.ict.org.il ).
19.
Garb, Y. (2002) The impacts of transit terror: a report from Jerusalem . Outline of the talk for APTA International Security Innovations Workshop. Chicago, October.
20.
Gerth, H.H. and Mills, S.W. (1946) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.
21.
Gilbert, M. (1994) Jerusalem: a tale of one city, The New Republic, 14 November.
22.
Glaeser, E. and Shapiro, M. (2002) Cities and warfare: the impact of terrorism on urban form, Journal of Urban Economics, 51(March), pp. 205-224.
23.
Goldberg, J. (2001) The martyr strategy, The New Yorker , 9 July.
24.
Gold, J.R. and Revill, G., (2000) Landscapes of Defense. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
25.
Hasson, S. (1996) Local Politics and split citizenship in Jerusalem , International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 20(1), pp. 116-132.
26.
Hazam, S. and Felsenstein, D. (2004) A spatial analysis of terror in Jerusalem. Unpublished paper, Institute of Urban and Regional Studies, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
27.
HBO (2003) Terror in Moscow. TV Programme, broadcast on 23 October at 7pm ET. Hoffman, B. (1998) Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
28.
Hoffman, B. (2003a) The logic of suicide terrorism, The Atlantic Monthly, June, pp. 40-47.
29.
Hoffman, B. (2003b) Comment on terror. Lessons from the numerous acts of terror and violence against civilians in Jerusalem. Presentation at the Jerusalem Institute for Israeli Studies, 'Terror in Jerusalem', Seminar transcript, June (available at: http://www.jiis.org.il/ ).
30.
International Policy Institute For CoUnter-TERRoRIsM2004. Database. Herzliya (available at http://www.ict.org.il).
31.
Israeli Institute For Jerusalem Studies (2004 ) The security fence in the Jerusalem area. Jerusalem.
32.
Israeli Ministry Of Toursim (2004) Tourist entries to Israel. Reference No. 2004-0005-457, Jerusalem.
33.
Izvestia (2004) www.izvestia.ru.
34.
Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House.
35.
Jerusalem Development Authority (1996) An Overview. January 1995-January 1996.
36.
Jerusalem Hotel Owners Association (2002) Summary Overnight Report. Prepared by Tody Washavsky. Jerusalem.
37.
Jerusalem Institute For Israel Studies (1998 ) Jerusalem on the Map: Basic Facts and Trends 1967-1996. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies.
38.
Jerusalem Institute For Israel Studies (2002 ) The Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem, No. 20. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies.
39.
Jerusalem Institute For Israel Studies (2003 ) The Jerusalem Yearbook 2003 (available at: www.jiis.org.il/shnaton).
40.
Judd, D. and Fainstein, S. (2002) The Tourist City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
41.
Laquer, W. (1996) Postmodern Terrorism, Foreign Affairs , 75(24), pp. 24-36.
42.
Larson, A. (2002) The international dimension of combating the financing of terrorism. Statement. Office of the US Under Secretary of State, 9 October.
43.
Lelyveld, J. (2001) All suicide bombers are not alike, The New York Times Magazine, 28 October.
44.
Lenta Novostey (2004) www.lenta.ru .
45.
Levitt, M. (2002) The political economy of Middle East terrorism, Middle East Review ofInternational Affairs, 6(4), pp. 49-65.
46.
Levitt, M. (2003) Stemming the flow of terrorist financing: practical and conceptual challenges, The Fletcher Forum ofWorld Affairs , 27(1), pp. 59-70.
47.
London Government (2004) http://www.london.gov.uk/.
48.
Makovsky, D. (2004) How to build a fence, Foreign Affairs , March/April, pp. 50-64.
49.
Masters, R.D. (2002) Pre-emptive war, Iraq, and suicide bombers, The Forum, 1(2), pp. 1-3.
50.
Mccarthy, J. (1990) The Population of Palestine. New York: Columbia University Press.
51.
Merry, S.E. (1981) Defensible space undefended: social factors in crime control through environmental design, Urban Affairs Quarterly, 16(4), pp. 397-422.
52.
Moghadam, A. (2003) Palestinian suicide terrorism in the second intifada: motivations and organizational aspects, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 26, pp. 65-92.
53.
Moscow: Committee For Tourism Of Moscow City ( 2003) Business tourism. Moscow.
54.
Moscow Department Of Economic Policy (2004 ) (http://www.mos.ru/index.shtml).
55.
Murphy, A.B. (2003) The space of terror, in: S. CUTTER, D. RICHARDSON and T. WILBANKs (Eds) The Geographical Dimensions of Terrorism , pp. 47-52. New York: Routledge.
56.
Nacos, B.L. (2002) Mass-mediated Terrorism. The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
57.
National Federation Of Trade In Israel (2004 ) Report on retail shops in Jerusalem. Jerusalem .
58.
Newman, O. (1972) Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design. New York: Macmillan.
59.
Nordbruch, G. (2001) Narrating Palestinian nationalism: an inquiry into the new Palestinian textbooks. Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI), April (available at www.memri.org ).
60.
Oc, T. and Tiesdell, S. (2000) Urban design approaches to safer city centers: the fortress, the panoptic, the regulatory and the animated, in: J. R. Gold and G. Revill (Eds) Landscapes of Defense, pp. 188-208. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
61.
Pedahzur, A. and Paran, G. (2002) Terrorism in Jerusalem. Presentation at Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies (available at: http://www.jiis.org.il/ ).
62.
Pedahzur, A. and Paran, G. (2003) Lessons from the numerous acts of terror and violence against civilians in Jerusalem. Presentation at Jerusalem Institute for Israeli Studies, 'Terror in Jerusalem' . Seminar transcript, June (available at: http://www.jiis.org.il/).
63.
Pirenne, H. (1969) Medieval Cities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
64.
Pravda. (2004) www.pravda.ru.
65.
Radlauer, D. (2002) An engineered tragedy: statistical analysis of casualties in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, September 2000-September 2002 (available at: http://www.ict.org.il/).
66.
Rand Corporation (2004) Incidents, injuries, deaths by region, National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (http://www.mipt.org/ ).
67.
Richardson, L. (1998) Global rebels, Harvard International Review, 20, p. 52 (available at http://hir.harvard.edu/articles/index.html?id=334&page=1).
68.
Sack, R.D. (1983) Human territoriality: a theory, Annals of the American Geographers, 73(1), pp. 55-74.
69.
Satloff, R. (2002) The peace process at sea: the Karine A and the war on terrorism, The National Interest, Spring, (available at www.washingtoninstitute.org/media/satloffpeace.htm ).
70.
Savitch H. and Kantor, P. (2002) Cities in the International Marketplace. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
71.
Savitch, H.V. with Ardashev, G. (2001) Does terror have an urban future?, Urban Studies, 38(13), pp. 2515-2533.
72.
Sheleg, Y. (2001) A short history of terror, Haaretz , 3 December (http://www.haaretzdaily.com/).
73.
Simon, B. (2000) Children on the Front Line, in: CBS News, 60 Minutes, 24 October (available at www.cbsnews.cbs.com).
Uk National Tourist Board (2003) Tourism Survey. International Passenger Survey, Office for National Statistics, London.
82.
UN Population Division (2004) (http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.htm).
83.
US Code (n.d.) Title22, Section 2656(f).
84.
Us Department Of Justice (n.d.) The Al Qaeda Training Manual (available at: http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/trainingmanual.htm ).
85.
Us Department Of State (1990) Patterns of Global Terrorism 1990. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, (available at: http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/).
86.
Us Department Of State (2002) Patterns of Global Terrorism 1993-2001. Released by the Office of the Co-ordinator for Counterterrorism, 1994-2002, Washington, DC.
87.
Us House Committee On Financial Services ( 2002) Testimony of Steven Emerson, Terrorist Expert and Investigator, Executive Director, Terrorism Newswire, Inc., 12 February.
88.
Us House Committee On Financial Services ( 2003) Testimony of Alice Fisher, Deputy Assistant Attorney General , US Department of Justice, 11 March.
89.
Us House Committee On International Relations ( 2003) Hearings on terror, 15 July.
90.
Us Senate Appropriations Committee (2003) Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services and Education , 30 October.
91.
Us Senate Finance Committee (2002) Testimony of Michael Chertoff, Assistant Attorney General, United States Department of Justice, 9 October.
92.
Valiyev, A. (2004) Terror in Moscow. Unpublished paper, School of Urban and Public Affairs, University of Louisville .
93.
Vremya Novostey (2004) (http://www.vremya.ru/ ).
94.
Wassertstein, B. (2001) DivideJerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
95.
Weber, M. (1947) Theory of Economics and Social Organizations, ed. by T.PARSONS, pp. 8-29 and 87-157. New York: Oxford University Press.
96.
Wedgewood, C.V. (1961) The Thirty Years War. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
97.
Weimann, G. (2004) How modern terrorism uses the Internet. Special Report 116, US Institute of Peace, Washington, DC.
98.
Weiner, J. (2002) Child abuse in the Palestinian Authority, Jerusalem Post, 2 October.
99.
Wente, M. (2003) How martyrs are made, The Toronto Globe and Mail, 11 October.
100.
White, G.F. (2001) Home ownership: crime and the tipping and trapping processes, Environment and Behavior, 33(3), pp. 325-342.
101.
Wilson, J.Q. and Kellog, G.L. (1982) Broken windows: the police and neighborhood safety , The Atlantic Monthly, March, pp. 29-38.
102.
Wirth, L. (1969) Urbanism as a way of life: the city and contemporary civilization, in: R. Sennet (Ed.) Classic Essays on the Culture of Cities, pp. 143-164. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
