Spatial navigation within a real 3-D maze was investigated to study space perception on the sole basis of tactile information transmitted by means of a ‘tactile vision substitution system' (TVSS) allowing the conversion of optical images—collected by a micro camera—into ‘tactile images’ via a matrix in contact with the skin. The development of such a device is based on concepts of cerebral and functional plasticity, enabling subjective reproduction of visual images from tactile data processing. Blindfolded sighted subjects had to remotely control the movements of a robot on which the TVSS camera was mounted. Once familiarised with the cues in the maze, the subjects were given two exploration sessions. Performance was analysed according to an objective point of view (exploration time, discrimination capacity), as well as a subjective one (speech). The task was successfully carried out from the very first session. As the subjects took a different path during each navigation, a gradual improvement in performance (discrimination and exploration time) was noted, generating a phenomenon of learning. Moreover, subjective analysis revealed an evolution of the spatialisation process towards distal attribution. Finally, some emotional expressions seemed to reflect the genesis of ‘qualia’ (emotional qualities of stimulation).
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AielloG L, 1998“Multidimensional electrocutaneous stimulation”IEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering695–101.
2.
AriasC, 1996“L'écholocation humaine chez les handicapés visuels”L'Année Psychologique96703–721.
3.
ArnoPCapelleCWanet-DefalqueM-CCatalan-AhumadaMVeraartC, 1999“Auditory coding of visual patterns for the blind”Perception281013–1029.
Bach-Y-RitaP, 1972Brain Mechanisms in Sensory Substitution (New York: Academic Press).
6.
Bach-Y-RitaP, 1995Nonsynaptic Diffusion Neurotransmission and Late Brain Reorganization (New York: Demos-Vermande).
7.
Bach-Y-RitaP, 1997“Substitution sensorielle et qualia”, in Perception et intermodalité: Approches actuelles de la question de Molyneux Ed. ProustJ, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France).
8.
Bach-Y-RitaP, 1999“Theoretical aspects of sensory substitution and of neurotransmitter-related reorganization in spinal cord injury”Spinal Cord37465–474.
9.
Bach-Y-RitaPCollinsC CSaundersFWhiteBScaddenL, 1969“Vision substitution by tactile image projection”Nature221963–964.
10.
Bach-Y-RitaPKaczmarekK AMitchellE T, 2003“A tongue-based display for portrayal of environmental characteristics”, in Psychological Issues in the Design and Use of Virtual and Adaptative Environments Eds HettlingerLHaasM, (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) pp 169–186.
11.
BerthozA, 1997Le sens du mouvement (Paris: Edition Odile Jacob).
12.
BlaschBWienerWWelshR, 1997Foundations of Orientation and Mobilitysecond edition (New York: American Foundation for the Blind) pp 291–293.
13.
CollinsC CBach-Y-RitaPSaundersFWhiteBScaddenL, 1973“Transmission of pictorial information through the skin”Advances in Biological Medicine and Physiology14285–315.
14.
DurupM, 1985“Les mécanismes de l'orientation lointaine chez l'animal”, in La lecture sensori-motrice et cognitive de l'expérience spatialevolume 1, Ed. PaillardJ, (Paris: CNRS) pp 181–190.
15.
FarcyRDamaschiniRMilchbergNSampaioEBrenièreYMatonB, 1997“A laser profilometer as a space perception system for blind people”Journal of Optics28207–213.
16.
FlitmanSO'GradyJCooperVGrafmanJ, 1997“PET imaging of maze processing”Neuropsychologia35409–419.
17.
FoulkeE, 1982“Perception, cognition, and the mobility of blind pedestrians”Spatial Abilities. Development and Physiological Foundations (New York: Academic Press) 55–76.
18.
GibsonJ J, 1966The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin).
JanssonG, 1983“Tactile guidance of movement”International Journal of Neuroscience1937–45.
25.
KaczmarekKBach-Y-RitaP, 1995“Tactile displays”, in Virtual Environments and Advanced Interface Design Eds BarfieldWFurnessTIII, (Oxford: Oxford University Press) pp 349–414.
26.
KayN, 1980“Reaching to sound”Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness74163–166.
27.
LenayC, 1997“Mouvement et perception: Médiation technique et constitution de la spatialisation”, in Le mouvement. Des boucles sensori-motrices aux représentations cognitives et langagières Actes de la Sixième École d'Été de l'Association pour la Recherche Cognitive, pp 69–80.
28.
LenayCGapenneOHannetonSMarqueCGenouëlleC, 2000“La substitution sensorielle: Limites et perspectives”, in Toucher pour connaître; Psychologie cognitive de la perception tactile manuelle Eds HatwellYStreriAGentazE, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France) pp 287–306.
29.
LepecqJ-CPêcheuxM-G, 1985“L'espace géographique: Inférences et représentations spatiales”, in La lecture sensori-motrice et cognitive de l'expérience spatialevolume 1, Ed. PaillardJ, (Paris: CNRS) pp 191–201.
30.
MaguireE ABurgessNO'KeefeJ, 1999“Human spatial navigation: Cognitive maps, sexual dimorphism, and neural substrate”Current Opinion in Neurobiology9171–179.
31.
MorganM J, 1977Molyneux's Question (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
32.
MorrisR G M, 1981“Spatial localization does not require the presence of local cues”Learning and Motivation12239–260.
33.
PacherieE, 1997“Du problème de Molyneux au problème de Bach-y-Rita”, in Perception et intermodalité. Approches actuelles de la question de Molyneux Ed. ProustJ, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France) pp 255–293.
34.
ProustJ, 1997Perception et intermodalité. Approches actuelles de la question de Molyneux (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France).
35.
SampaioE, 1989a“La vision est-elle nécessaire pour apprendre à marcher? Étude préliminaire et approche méthodologique”Psychologie Française3471–78.
36.
SampaioE, 1989b“Is there a critical age for using the sonicguide with blind infants?”Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness83105–108.
37.
SampaioE, 1995“Les substitutions sensorielles adaptées aux déficits visuels importants”, in Le déficit visuel. Des fondements neurophysiologiques à la pratique de la réadaptation Eds SafranA BAssimacopoulosA, (Paris: Masson) pp 197–211.
38.
SampaioE, 2000La peau peut-elle remplacer l'œil en cas de cécité? A research report (Strasbourg, France: INSERM/CNAMTS).
39.
SampaioEDufierJ L, 1988“Suppléance sensorielle électronique pour les jeunes enfants aveugles”Journal Français d'Ophthalmologie11161–167.
40.
SampaioEMarisSBach-Y-RitaP, 2001“Brain plasticity: ‘Visual’ acuity of blind persons via the tongue”Brain Research908204–207.
41.
SilverstoneBLangM ARosenthalB PFayeE E, 2000The Lighthouse Handbook on Vision Impairment and Vision Rehabilitation (New York: The Lighthouse and Oxford University Press).
42.
Van HornJ DGoldJ MEspositoGOstremJ LMattayVWeinbergerD RBermanK F, 1998“Changing patterns of brain activation during maze learning”Brain Research79329–38.
43.
WarrenD HStrelowE R, (Eds), 1985Electronic Spatial Sensing for the Blind (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff).
44.
WhiteB WSaundersF AScaddenLBach-Y-RitaPCollinsC C, 1970“Seeing with the skin”Perception & Psychophysics723–27.
45.
WitmerB GSingerM J, 1994Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments. ARI Technical Report 1014 (Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences).
