The present study was aimed at analysing the effects of a lack of visual experience in human subjects on the detection and identification of a spatial change brought about to a configuration of objects displayed in manipulatory space. Exploratory patterns and performance levels were recorded. Learning effects were observed in different types of change and condition of presentation only in the early-blind and blindfolded sighted groups, but not in the late-blind group. Early blindness affected both exploratory patterns and performance levels. In addition, significant correlations were found between performance level and the use of systematic patterns of exploration. These data are discussed in relation with the importance of early vision during the development of spatial cognition.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BarberP OLedermanS J, 1988“Encoding direction in manipulatory space and the role of visual experience”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness8299–106
2.
BrambingM, 1976“The structure of haptic space”Psychological Research38283–302
3.
CarpenterP AEisenbergP, 1978“Mental rotation and the frame of reference in blind and sighted individuals”Perception & Psychophysics23117–124
4.
CaseyS M, 1978“Cognitive mapping by the blind”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness72297–301
5.
CleavesW TRoyalR W, 1979“Spatial memory for configurations by congenitally blind, late blind and sighted adults”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness7313–19
6.
CornoldiCCortesiAPrettiD, 1991“Individual differences in the capacity limitations of visuospatial short-term memory: Research on sighted and totally congenitally blind people”Memory and Cognition19459–468
7.
CrattyB J, 1967“The perception of gradient and the veering tendency while walking without vision”American Foundation for the Blind, Research Bulletin1431–51
8.
DoddsA G, 1983“Mental rotation and visual imagery”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness7716–18
9.
FletcherJ F, 1981“Spatial representation in blind children. 3. Effects of individual differences”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness7546–49
10.
GaunetFThinus-BlancC, 1995“Exploratory patterns and reactions to spatial changes: The role of early visual experience”, in Studies in Perception and Actionvolume III (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) pp 351–354
11.
GaunetFThinus-BlancC, 1996“Early-blind subjects' spatial abilities in the locomotor space: Exploratory strategies and reaction-to-change performance”Perception25967–981
12.
HellerM A, 1989“Tactile memory in sighted and blind observers: The influence of orientation and rate of presentation”Perception18121–133
13.
HellerM AKennedyJ M, 1990“Perspective taking, pictures and the blind”Perception & Psychophysics45459–466
14.
HermanJ EChatmanS PRothS F, 1983“Cognitive mapping in blind people: Acquisition of spatial relationship in a large scale environment”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness77161–166
15.
HermelinBO'ConnorN, 1975“Location and distance estimates by blind and sighted children”Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology27295–301
16.
HillE WPonderP, 1976Orientation and Mobility Techniques: A Guide for the Practitioner (New York: American Foundation for the Blind)
17.
HillE WRieserJ JHillM MHillMHalpinJHalpinR, 1993“How do persons with visual impairment explore novel spaces? A study of strategies used by exceptionally good and exceptionally poor performers”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness87295–301
18.
HollinsMKelleyE K, 1988“Spatial updating in blind and sighted people”Perception & Psychophysics43380–388
19.
LedermanS JKlatzkyR IBarberP O, 1985“Spatial and movement-based heuristics for encoding pattern information through touch”Journal of Experimental Psychology: General11433–49
20.
LedermanS JKlatzkyR LCollinsRWardellJ, 1987“Exploring environments by hand and foot: Time-based heuristics for encoding distance in movement space”Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition13606–614
21.
LoomisJ MKlatzkyR LGolledgeJ GPellegrinoJ WFryP A, 1993“Nonvisual navigation by blind and sighted: Assessment of path integration ability”Journal of Experimental Psychology: General12273–91
22.
MarmorG SZabackL A, 1976“Mental rotation by the blind: Does mental rotation depend on visual imagery?”Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance2515–521
23.
MillarS, 1994Understanding and Representing Space. Theory and Evidence from Studies with Blind and Sighted Children (Oxford: Clarendon Press)
24.
NeisserU, 1976Cognition and Reality (San Francisco, CA: W H Freeman)
25.
RieserJ JGuthD AHillE W, 1986“Sensitivity to perspective structure while walking without vision”Perception15173–188
26.
RieserJ JHillE WTalorC RBradfieldARosenS, 1992“Visual experience, visual field size and the development of nonvisual sensitivity to the spatial structure of outdoor neighborhoods explored by walking”Journal of Experimental Psychology: General121210–221
27.
RossettiYGaunetFThinus-BlancC, 1996“Early visual experience affects memorization and spatial representation of proprioceptive targets”Neuroreport71219–1223
28.
RouanetHLépineD, 1970“Comparison between treatments in a repeated measurement design: ANOVA and multivariate methods”British Journal of Mathematics, Statistics and Psychology23147–163
29.
TellevikJ M, 1992“Influence of spatial exploration patterns on cognitive mapping by blindfolded sighted persons”Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness92221–224
30.
Thinus-BlancC, 1988“Animal spatial cognition”, in Thought without Language Ed. WeiskrantzL, (Oxford: Oxford University Press) pp 371–395
31.
Thinus-BlancCGaunetF, 1997“Representation of space in blind persons: Vision as a spatial sense”Psychological Bulletin12120–42
32.
WarrenD H, 1970“Intermodality interactions in spatial localization”Cognitive Psychology1114–133
33.
WarrenD H, 1974“Early versus late vision: The role of early vision in spatial reference systems”The New Outlook for the Blind3157–162
34.
WheathefordD L, 1985“Representing and manipulating spatial information from different environments: Models to neighborhoods”, in The Development of Spatial Cognition Ed. CohenR, (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) pp 41–70
