This study examines the changes between 1981 and 2006 in Toronto's lowest income neighbourhoods. It shows the oldest buildings gentrifying while, contrary to filtering theory, the newer high-rise apartments in the inner suburbs built for a car-oriented middle class were filtering down to visible minorities, recent immigrants, ethnic minorities, single parents, and the unemployed or underemployed people in low-wage jobs. Nevertheless, the lowest income neighbourhoods display a considerable degree of income mix pointing to the importance of household-based rather than space-based housing policy. The high proportion of university graduates in the lowest income neighbourhoods raises questions about the role of education in helping people gain access to urban resources. While government transfers to households in the top nine income deciles increased, they decreased for the lowest income households. Although the average income in the CMA rose faster than rents, rents increased in the lowest decile neighbourhoods with declining incomes. Low-income households were moving to pedestrian-unfriendly neighborhoods with poor access to public transit and employment opportunities.
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