The distribution of central places is theoretically investigated by using Rushton's map transformation algorithm, MAPTRANS, for the case of the Kanto region in preindustrial Japan. The recovered hierarchical spacing reveals that central places were located according to the marketing principle to some extent, as well as being influenced by population density. Their locations were also locally distorted by traffic, administrative, and topographical conditions. These results suggest that Christaller's three principles did generally determine the distribution of central places. Application of the general hierarchical model to the actual frequency distribution of centers further confirms that the hierarchical structure is well approximated by a variable k-system rather than by the Christallerian k-system, which implies that a structural change in the hierarchy had taken place in the course of modernization.
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