This paper illustrates the impact of the human element in the scientific process by presenting the history of Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosenkrantz, and Vogel (1970), one of the most highly cited papers in psychology. Broverman et al. stimulated remarkable interest in sex bias among mental health professionals. Several articles published in major psychology journals demonstrated the paper's fatal flaws in the 2 decades following its publication. Nonetheless, Broverman et al. was accepted with little resistance. Broverman et al. continues to be cited as empirical support for the sex bias hypothesis among mental health professionals.
AbramowitzC. V., & DokeckiP. R. (1977). The politics of clinical judgment: Early empirical returns. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 460–476.
2.
AbramowitzS. I., AbramowitzC. V., JacksonC., & GomesB. (1973). The politics of clinical judgment: What nonliberal examiners infer about women who do not stifle themselves. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 385–391.
3.
AbramowitzS. I., AbramowitzC. V., RobackH. B., CorneyR., & McKeeE. (1976). Sex-role related countertransference in psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 33, 187–200.
4.
BondiL., & BurmanE. (2001). Women and mental health: A feminist review. Feminist Review, 68, 6–33.
5.
BentleyK. J. (2005). Women, mental health, and the psychiatric enterprise: A review. Health & Social Work, 30, 56–63.
6.
BowlbyJ. (1977). Making and breaking of affectional bonds: Etiology and psychopathology in light of attachment theory. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 201–210.
7.
BrovermanI. K., BrovermanD. M., ClarksonF. E., RosenkrantzP. S., & VogelS. R. (1970). Sex role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34, 1–7.
8.
BrunsC. M., & TrimbleC. (2001). Rising tide: Taking our place as young feminist psychologists. Women & Therapy, 23, 19–36.
9.
BuddJ. M. (1999). Citations and knowledge claims: Sociology of knowledge as a case in point. Journal of Information Science, 25, 265–274.
10.
CheslerP. (1972). Women and madness. New York: Doubleday.
11.
CheslerP. (2005). Women and madness (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
12.
CronbachL. J. (1970). How should we measure change—Or should we. Psychological Bulletin, 74, 68–80.
13.
DavidsonC. V. (1983). Making the conceptual leap from sex bias to countertransference: A closer look at the patient–therapist dyad. In MurrayJ. & AbramsonP. R., Bias in psychotherapy (pp. 168–191). New York: Praeger.
14.
DavidsonC. V., & AbramowtizS. I. (1980). Sex bias in clinical judgment: Later empirical returns. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 4, 377–395.
15.
DawesR. M. (1994). House of cards: Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth. New York: Free Press.
16.
Else-QuestN. M. (2006). Still crazy after all these years? [Review of the book Women and madness]. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 417–418.
17.
EysenckS. B. G., EysenckH. J., & BarrettP. (1985). A revised version of the psychoticism scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 21–29.
18.
GarfieldE. (1975). Journal citation studies: Psychology and behavior journals. Current Contents, 9, 5–9.
19.
GarfieldE. (1977). Introducing citation classics: The human side of scientific reports. Current Contents, 1, 5–7.
20.
HaggbloomS. J., WarnickR., WarnickJ. E., JonesV. K., YarbroughG. L., RussellT., (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, 6, 139–152.
21.
HarlowH. F. (1949). The formation of learning sets. Psychological Review, 56, 51–65.
22.
HegartyP., & BuechelC. (2006). Androcentric reporting of gender differences in APA journals: 1965–2004. Review of General Psychology, 10, 377–389.
23.
HerrnsteinR. J. (1970). On law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 243–266.
24.
HorneS., MathewsS., DetrieP., BurkeM., & CookB. (2001). Look it up under “F”: Dialogues of emerging and experienced feminists. Women & Therapy, 23, 5–18.
25.
HullD. L. (1988). Science as a process: An evolutionary account of the social and conceptual development of science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
26.
IoannidisJ. P. A. (2005). Contradicted and initially stronger effects in highly cited clinical research. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 218–228.
27.
KuhnT. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
28.
MacCounR. (1998). Biases in the interpretation and use of research results. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 259–287.
29.
MahoneyM. J. (1977). Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 161–175.
30.
MahoneyM. J. (1979). Psychology of the scientist: An evaluative review. Social Studies of Science, 9, 349–375.
31.
MaierS. F., & SeligmanM. E. P. (1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 105, 3–46.
32.
MaxfieldR. B. (1976). Sex-role stereotyping as a factor in mental health standards among counselors-in-training. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37, 1914B.
33.
MeehlP. E. (1954). Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
34.
MirelsH. L. (1970). Dimensions of internal versus external control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34, 226–228.
35.
MurrayJ. (1983). Sex bias in psychotherapy: A historical perspective. In MurrayJ. & AbramsonP. R.Bias in psychotherapy (pp. 3–38). New York: Praeger.
36.
OkunB. F. (2002). Effective helping: Interviewing and counseling techniques (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
37.
PhillipsR. D., & GilroyF. D. (1985). Sex-role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health: The Brovermans’ findings reexamined. Sex Roles, 12, 179–193.
38.
ReddingR. E. (2001). Sociopolitical diversity in psychology: The case for pluralism. American Psychologist, 56, 205–216.
39.
RitsnerM., PonizovskyA., & GinathY. (1999). The effect of age on gender differences in the psychological distress ratings of immigrants. Stress Medicine, 15, 17–25.
40.
RitsnerM., PonizovskyA., NechamkinY., & ModaiI. (2001). Gender differences in psychosocial risk factors for psychological distress among immigrants. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 151–160.
41.
RosenkrantzP., VogelS., BeeH., BrovermanI., & BrovermanD. M. (1968). Sex-role stereotypes and self-concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 287–295.
42.
SkinnerB. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary. Psychological Review, 57, 193–216.
43.
SkinnerB. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.
44.
SternbergR. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135.
45.
StrickerG. (1977). Implications of research for psychotherapeutic treatment of women. American Psychologist, 32, 14–22.
46.
TurnerM. B. (1967). Philosophy and the science of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
47.
WatsonD., & FriendR. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448–456.
48.
WidigerT. A., & SettleS. A. (1987). Broverman et al. revisited: An artifactual sex bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 463–469.
49.
WigginsJ. S. (1973). Personality and prediction: Principles of personality assessment. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
50.
WorrellJ. (2000). Feminism in psychology: Revolution or evolution?Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 571, 183–196.
51.
WorrellJ. (2001). Feminist interventions: Accountability beyond symptom reduction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 335–343.
