Application of the principles of evolution and natural selection to the phenomena of human mating does not lead inevitably to a single theoretical model. According to the standard evolutionary model, formally known as sexual strategies theory (D. M. Buss & D. P. Schmitt, 1993), biologically based sex differences in parental investment have resulted in hard-wired sex differences in mate preferences and mating strategies. A critical analysis of the logical and empirical foundations of the theory reveals several weaknesses and limitations. This article demonstrates how attachment theory (J. Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1979, 1980, 1988) can be used to integrate a diverse set of ideas and research findings and provide a more grounded account of human mating.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AinsworthM. D. S., BleharM. C., WatersE., & WallS. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2.
AlcockJ. (1989). Animal behavior: An evolutionary approach. Boston: Sinauer.
3.
AronA., DuttonD. G., AronE. N., & IversonA. (1989). Experiences of falling in love. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6, 243–257.
4.
BakerR. R. (1996). Sperm wars: The evolutionary logic of love and lust. London: Basic Books.
5.
BakerR. R., & BellisM. A. (1995). Human sperm competition. London: Chapman & Hall.
6.
BelskyJ. (1999). Modern evolutionary theory and patterns of attachment. In CassidyJ. & ShaverP. R., Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 141–161). New York: Guilford Press.
7.
BemS. L. (1993). The lenses of gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
8.
Blaffer-HrdyS. (1988). The primate origins of human sexuality. In BelligR. & StevensG., The evolution of sex (pp. 101–131). San Francisco: Harper & Row.
9.
BloomB. L., AsherS. J., & WhiteS. W. (1978). Marital disruption as a stressor: A review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 867–894.
10.
BowlbyJ. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
11.
BowlbyJ. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London: Tavistock.
12.
BowlbyJ. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.
13.
BowlbyJ. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)
14.
BowlbyJ. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.
15.
BussD. M. (1984). Toward a psychology of person-environment (PE) correlation: The role of spouse selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 361–377.
16.
BussD. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.
17.
BussD. M. (1994). The strategies of human mating. American Scientist, 82, 238–249.
18.
BussD. M. (1997). The emergence of evolutionary social psychology. In SimpsonJ. A. & KenrickD. T., Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 387–400). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
19.
BussD. M., & BarnesM. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 559–570.
20.
BussD. M., LarsenR. J., WestenD., & SemmelrothJ. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science, 3, 251–255.
21.
BussD. M., & SchmittD. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.
22.
CaraniC., GranataA. R., FustiniM. F., & MarramaP. (1996). Prolactin and testosterone: Their role in male sexual function. International Journal of Andrology, 19, 48–54.
23.
CarterC. S. (1992). Oxytocin and sexual behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 16, 131–144.
24.
CarterC. S. (1998). Neuroendocrine perspectives on attachment and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 779–818.
25.
CarterC. S., DeVriesA. C., TaymansS. E., RobertsR. L., WilliamsJ. R., & GetzL. L. (1997). Peptides, steroids, and pair bonding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 260–272.
26.
ChisholmJ. S. (1996). The evolutionary ecology of attachment organization. Human Nature, 7, 1–38.
27.
ClarkR. D., & HatfieldE. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39–55.
28.
CrittendenP. M. (1995). Attachment and psychopathology. In GoldbergS., MuirR., & KerrJ., Attachment theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives (pp. 367–406). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
29.
CunninghamM. R., DruenP. B., & BarbeeA. P. (1997). Angels, mentors, and friends: Trade-offs among evolutionary, social, and individual variables in physical appearance. In SimpsonJ. A. & KenrickD. T., Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 109–140). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
30.
CutlerW. B., GarciaC. R., HugginsG. R., & PretiG. (1986). Sexual behavior and steroid levels among gynecologically mature premenopausal women. Fertility and Sterility, 45, 496–502.
31.
DalyM., & WilsonM. (1988). Homicide. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
32.
DeStenoD. A., & SaloveyP. (1996). Genes, jealousy, and the replication of misspecified models. Psychological Science, 7, 376–377.
33.
DraperP., & BelskyJ. (1990). Personality development in evolutionary perspective. Journal of Personality, 58, 141–161.
34.
DraperP., & HarpendingH. (1982). A sociobiological perspective on the development of human reproductive strategies. In MacDonaldK., Sociobiological perspectives on human development (pp. 340–372). New York: Springer-Verlag.
35.
EaglyA. H., & WoodW. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408–423.
36.
EberhardW. G. (1985). Sexual selection and animal genitalia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
37.
EberhardW. G. (1991). Copulatory courtship and cryptic female choice in insects. Biological Review, 66, 1–31.
38.
EcklandB. K. (1968). Theories of mate selection. Eugenics Quarterly, 15, 71–84.
39.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI. (1975). Ethology: The biology of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
40.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI. (1989). Human ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
41.
FisherH. E. (1989). Evolution in human serial pair bonding. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73, 331–354.
42.
FisherH. E. (1992). Anatomy of love. New York: Norton.
43.
FraleyR. C., & DavisK. E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults’ close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 4, 131–144.
44.
FraleyR. C., & ShaverP. R. (1999). Loss and bereavement: Attachment theory and recent controversies concerning “grief work” and the nature of detachment. In CassidyJ. & ShaverP. R., Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 735–759). New York: Guilford Press.
45.
FreudA., & DannS. (1951). An experiment in group upbringing. In EislerR., FreudA., HartmannH., & KrisE., The psychoanalytic study of the child (Vol. 6). New York: International Universities Press.
46.
GoodwinJ. S., HurtW. C., KeyC. R., & SarretJ. M. (1987). The effect of marital status on stage, treatment and survival of cancer patients. Journal of the American Medical Association, 258, 3125–3130.
47.
GouldS. J., & VrbaE. S. (1982). Exaptation—A missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology, 8, 4–15.
48.
GrazianoW. G., Jensen-CampbellL. A., ToddM., & FinchJ. F. (1997). Interpersonal attraction from an evolutionary psychology perspective: Women's reactions to dominant and prosocial men. In SimpsonJ. A. & KenrickD. T., Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 141–167). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
49.
HarlowH., & HarlowM. K. (1965). The affectional systems. In SchrierA. M., HarlowH. F., & StollnitzF., Behavior of nonhuman primates (Vol. 2, pp. 287–334). New York: Academic Press.
50.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 270–280.
51.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1992). Broken attachments. In OrbuchT. L., Close relationship loss: Theoretical approaches (pp. 90–108). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
52.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1994a). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5, 1–22.
53.
HazanC., & ShaverP. R. (1994b). Deeper into attachment theory. Psychological Inquiry, 5, 68–79.
54.
HazanC., & ZeifmanD. (1994). Sex and the psychological tether. Advances in Personal Relationships, 5, 151–177.
55.
HazanC., & ZeifmanD. (1999). Pair bonds as attachments: Evaluating the evidence. In CassidyJ. & ShaverP. R., Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 336–354). New York: Guilford Press.
56.
HillK., & HurtadoM. (1995). Demographic/life history of Ache foragers. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
57.
HolmesT. H., & RaheR. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.
58.
InselT. R. (2000). Toward a neurobiology of attachment. Review of General Psychology, 4, 176–185.
59.
KaganJ. (1984). The nature of the child. New York: Basic Books.
60.
KenrickD. T., GrothG. E., TrostM. R., & SadallaE. K. (1993). Integrating evolutionary and social exchange perspectives on relationships: Effects of gender, self-appraisal, and involvement level on mate selection criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 951–969.
61.
KraemerG. W. (1997). Psychobiology of early social attachment in rhesus monkeys. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 401–418.
62.
LancasterJ. B., & KaplanH. (1994). Human mating and family formation strategies: The effects of variability among males in quality and the allocation of mating effort and parental investment. In NishidaT., McGrewW. C., MarlerP., PickfordM., & de WaalF. B. M., Topics in primatology, vol. 1: Human origins (pp. 21–33). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
63.
LaumannE. O., GagnonJ. H., MichaelR. T., & MichaelsS. (1994). The social organization of sexuality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
64.
LeibowitzM. (1983). The chemistry of love. New York: Berkeley Books.
65.
LillardD., & GernerJ. (in press). Getting to the Ivy League: How family composition affects college choice. Journal of Higher Education.
66.
LykkenD. T., & TellegenA. (1993). Is human mating adventitious or the result of lawful choice? A twin study of mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 56–68.
67.
LynchJ. J. (1977). The broken heart: The medical consequences of loneliness. New York: Basic Books.
68.
MellenS. L. W. (1981). The evolution of love. Oxford, England: Freeman.
69.
MendozaS. P., & MasonW. A. (1997). Attachment relationships in new world primates. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 203–209.
70.
MillerG. F. (1998). How mate choice shaped human nature: A review of sexual selection and human evolution. In CrawfordC. & KrebsD. L., Handbook of evolutionary psychology: Ideas, issues, and applications (pp. 87–129). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
71.
MillerL. C., & FishkinS. A. (1997). On the dynamics of human bonding and reproductive success: Seeking windows on the adapted-for human-environment interface. In SimpsonJ. A. & KenrickD. T., Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 197–235). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
72.
MurrayS. L., & HolmesJ. G. (1993). Seeing virtues in faults: Negativity and the transformation of interpersonal narratives in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 707–722.
73.
MurrayS. L., & HolmesJ. G. (1994). Story-telling in close relationships: The construction of confidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 663–676.
74.
MurrayS. L., HolmesJ. G., & GriffinD. W. (1996). The benefits of positive illusions: Idealization and the construction of satisfaction in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 79–98.
75.
MursteinB. I. (1976). Who will marry whom? Theories and research in marital choice. New York: Springer.
76.
ParkesC. M., & WeissR. S. (1983). Recovery from bereavement. New York: Basic Books.
77.
PietromonacoP. R., & Feldman BarrettL. (2000). The internal working models concept: What do we really know about the self in relation to others?Review of General Psychology, 4, 155–175.
78.
RobertsonJ. (1953). Some responses of young children to the loss of maternal care. Nursing Times, 49, 382–386.
79.
RowlandD. L., GreenleafW. J., DorfmanL. J., & DavidsonJ. M. (1993). Aging and sexual function in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 545–557.
80.
RubinZ. (1973). Liking and loving. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
81.
RusbultC. E. (1980). A longitudinal test of the investment model: The development (and deterioration) of satisfaction and commitment in heterosexual involvements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 101–117.
82.
RusbultC. E. (1983). Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 172–186.
83.
SapolskyR. M. (1998, July–August). Sex and the single monkey. The Sciences. pp. 10–11.
84.
SchwartzD., MayauzM. J., SpiraA., MoscatoJ. L., JouannetP., DzyglikF., & DavidG. (1983). Semen characteristics as a function of age in 833 fertile men. Fertility and Sterility, 39, 530–535.
85.
ShaverP. R., & HazanC. (1993). Adult romantic attachment: Theory and empirical evidence. In PerlmanD. & JonesW., Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 4, pp. 29–70). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
86.
ShaverP. R., HazanC., & BradshawD. (1988). Love as attachment: The integration of three behavioral systems. In SternbergR. J. & BarnesM. L., The psychology of love (pp. 68–99). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
87.
SimpsonJ. A., & GangestadS. W. (1992). Sociosexuality and romantic partner choice. Journal of Personality, 60, 31–52.
88.
SimpsonJ. A., GangestadS. W., & LermaM. (1990). Perception of physical attractiveness: Mechanisms involved in the maintenance of romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1192–1201.
89.
SmallM. F. (1993). Female choices: Sexual behavior of female primates. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
90.
SmallM. F. (1995). What's love got to do with it? The evolution of human mating. New York: Anchor Books.
91.
SpitzR. A. (1946). Anaclitic depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 313–342.
92.
StearnsS. (1992). The evolution of life histories. New York: Oxford University Press.
93.
SuomiS. J. (1997). Early determinants of behaviour: Evidence from primate studies. British Medical Bulletin, 53, 170–184.
94.
SurbeyM. (1990). Family composition, stress, and human menarche. In BercovitchF. & ZeiglerT., The socioendocrinology of primate reproduction (pp. 71–97). New York: Liss.
95.
SymonsD. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
96.
TennovD. (1979). Love and limerence: The experience of being in love. New York: Stein & Day.
97.
TrevathanW. (1987). Human birth. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
98.
TriversR. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In CampbellB., Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 1871–1971). Chicago: Aldine.
99.
UchinoB. N., CacioppoJ. T., & Kiecolt-GlaserJ. K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488–531.
100.
Van den BergheP. L. (1979). Human family systems: An evolutionary view. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
101.
VeithJ. L., BuckM., GetzlafS., Van DalfsenP., & SladeS. (1983). Exposure to men influences the occurrence of ovulation in women. Physiology and Behavior, 31, 313–315.
102.
VormbrockJ. K. (1993). Attachment theory as applied to war-time and job-related marital separation. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 122–144.
103.
WallersteinJ. S. (1994). Children after divorce: Wounds that don't heal. In FensonL. & FensonJ., Human development, 94/95 (pp. 160–165). Guilford, CT: Dushkin.
104.
WashbumS. L. (1960). Tools and human evolution. Scientific American, 203, 3–15.
105.
WeissR. S. (1975). Marital separation. New York: Basic Books.
106.
ZeifmanD., & HazanC. (1997). Attachment: The bond in pair-bonds. In SimpsonJ. A. & KenrickD. T., Evolutionary social psychology (pp. 237–263). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
107.
ZimmermanS. J., MaudeM. B., & MoldawarM. (1965). Frequent ejaculation and total sperm count, motility and forms in humans. Fertility and Sterility, 16, 342–345.
