There is increasing recognition of the role obesity and the metabolic syndrome play in the causes of chronic disease. Heart disease, type II diabetes, stroke, hypertension and dyslipidaemia are the most important and most scrutinised of these co-morbidities, but there is no system in the body that escapes damage from the biochemical and physiological effects of obesity. The difference in body morphology and in particular fat distribution between the sexes leads to gender-specific differences in prevalence of chronic diseases, and unique problems for each sex including infertility, problems during pregnancy, polycystic ovarian syndrome and endometrial carcinoma in women, and prostate and testicular cancer in men.
FordE.S., GilesW.H., DietzW.H.Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults. Findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA, 2002; 287:356–359.
3.
KalffK.G., Maya-PelzerP., AndexerA., DeuberH.J.Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in military and civilian flying personnel. Aviat Space Environ Med, 1999; 70:1223–1226.
4.
FerranniniE., NataliA.Essential hypertension, metabolic disorders, and insulin esistance. Am Heart J, 1991; 121:1274–1282.
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, Physiologie Du Gout Paris: Feydeau, 1826.
7.
SimsE.A.H., DanforthE., HortonE.S., et al.Endocrine and metabolic effects of experimental obesityin man. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 1973; 29:457–496.
8.
ColditzG., WillettW.C., StampferM.J., et al.Weight as a risk factor for clinical diabetes in women. Am J Epidemiol, 1990; 132:501–513.
9.
DespresJ., LemieuxI., Prud’hommeD.Treatment of obesity: need to focus on high risk abdominally obese patients. BMJ, 2001; 322:716–720.
10.
TuomilehtoJ., LindstromJ., ErikssonJ.G., et al.Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med, 2001; 344:1343–1350.
11.
KnowlerW.C., Barrett-ConnorE., FowlerS.E., et al.Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med, 2002; 346:393–403.
12.
WilliamsonD.F., PamukE., ThunM., et al.Prospective study of intentional weight loss and mortality in never-smoking overweight US white women aged 40–60 years. Am J Epidemiology, 1995; 141:1128–1141.
13.
LeanM.E.J., PowrieJ.K., AndersonA.S., GarthwaiteP.H.Obesity, weight loss and prognosis in type 2 diabetes. Diabetic Medicine, 1990; 7:228–233.
14.
LamarcheB., DesprésJ.P., MoorjaniS., CantinB., DagenaisG.R., LupienP.J.Prevalence of dyslipidemic phenotypes in ischemic heart disease (prospective results from the Quebec Cardiovascular Study). Am J Cardiol., 1995; 75:1189–1195.
15.
HubertH.B., et al.Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a 26-year follow-up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation, 1983; 67:968–977.
OkosunI.S., PrewittT.E., CooperR.S.Abdominal obesity in the United States: prevalence and attributable risk of hypertension. J Hum Hypertens, 1999; 13:425–430.
18.
CassanoP.A., SegalM.R., VokonasP.S., et al.Body fat distribution, blood pressure and hypertension. A prospective cohort study of men in the normative aging study. Annals of Epidemiology, 1990; 1:33–48.
19.
KastarinenM.J., NissinenA.M., VartiainenE.A., JousilahtiP.J., KorhonenH.J., PuskaP.M.Tuomilehto. Blood pressure levels and obesity trends in hypertensive and normotensive Finnish population from 1982 to1997. J Hypertens, 2000; 18:255–262.
20.
WolfA.M., ColditzG.A.Current estimates of the economic costs of obesity in the US. Obesity Research, 1998; 6:97–106.
21.
CamargoCA, WeissS.T., ZhangS., et al.Prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of adult onset asthma in women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1999; 159:2582–2588.
22.
SinD.D., JonesR.L., ManS.F.P.Obesity is a risk factor for dyspnea but not for airflow obstruction. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2002; 162:1477–1481.
23.
KhedrM, EliasE.Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Can Weight Loss Help?. Obesity In Practice, 5(1):12–5.
24.
DayC.P.Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): where are we now and where are we going?. Gut, 2002; 50:585–588.
25.
CampbellI, HaslamD, Your Questions Answered: Obesity. Churchill Livingstone. 2004; 60.
26.
ShiffmanM.L., SugarmanH.J., KellumJ.M., MooreE.W.Changes in gallbladder bile composition following gallstone formation and weight reduction. Gastroenterology, 1992; 103(1):214–221.
27.
CicuttiniF.M., BakerJ.R., SpectorT.D.The association of obesity with osteoarthritis of the hand and knee in women:a twin study. Journal of Rheumatology, 1996; 23(7):1221–1226.
28.
ChoiHK, AtkinsonK, KarlsonEW, CurhanG. Weight gain, obesity and incident gout in a large, long-term, prospective cohort study. Program and abstracts of the American Collegeof Rheumatology 66th Annual Scientific Meeting; October 25–29, 2002. New Orleans LA Abstract 1593.
29.
GreenBB, WeissNS, DalingJR. Fertil Steril Risk of ovulatory infertility in relation to body weight. Fertility and Sterility, 1988; 50(5):721–6.
30.
BaetenJM, BukasiEA, LambeM.Pregnancy complications and outcomes among overweight. 2001.
GustafsonD., RothenbergE., BlennowK., SteenB., SkoogI.An 18-year follow-up of overweight and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Intern Med, 2003; 163(13):1524–1528.
33.
WolkA, GridleyG, SvenssonMet al.A prospective study of obesity and cancer risk. Cancer Causes and Control, 12(1):13–21.
34.
CarpenterK.M., HasinD.S., AllisonD.B., FaithM.S.Relationships between obesity and DSM-IV major depressive disorder, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts: results from a general population study. Am J Public Health, 2000; 90:251–271.
35.
RobertsR.E., StrawbridgeW.I., DelegerS., KaplanG.A.Are the fat more jolly?. Annals of Behavioural Medicine, 2002; 24(3):169–180.
