Urolithiasis is increasing in prevalence and causes substantial morbidity and economic burden. Aside from “acute” stone episodes, urolithiasis should be regarded as a systemic disorder and investigated fully. Practical guidance is given for the medical investigation, diagnosis and treatment of urolithiasis. A single episode of urolithiasis should prompt a review of potential risk factors for recurrent disease and appropriate baseline investigations should be performed. Further biochemical tests may then be directed appropriately and allow individualised advice and treatment to be given to the patient with urolithiasis.
LotanY. Economics and cost of care of stone disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis2009;16:5–10.
2.
The NHS Information Centre, Hospital Episode Statistics for England. Inpatient statistics: Total procedures and interventions. http://www.hesonline.nhs.uk.
KimYJHaYSJoSWYunSJChuISKimWJChanges in urinary lithogenic features over time in patients with urolithiasis. Urology2009;74:51–5.
5.
DaudonMTraxerOConortPLacourBJungersP. Type 2 diabetes increases the risk for uric acid stones. J Am Soc Nephrol2006;17:2026–33.
6.
CoeFLKeckJNortonER. The natural history of calcium urolithiasis. JAMA1977;238:1519–23.
7.
WilliamsRE. Long-term survey of 538 patients with upper urinary tract stone. Br J Urol1963;35:416–37.
8.
RuleADBergstralhEJMeltonLJIIILiXWeaverALLieskeJC. Kidney stones and the risk for chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol2009;4:804–11.
9.
SpivacowFRNegriALDel ValleEECalvinoIZanchettaJR. Clinical and metabolic risk factor evaluation in young adults with kidney stones. Int Urol Nephrol2009.
10.
YagisawaTKobayashiCHayashiTYoshidaATomaH. Contributory metabolic factors in the development of nephrolithiasis in patients with medullary sponge kidney. Am J Kidney Dis2001;37:1140–3.
11.
SayerJA. The genetics of nephrolithiasis. Nephron Exp Nephrol2008;110:e37–43.
12.
SayerJACarrGSimmonsNL. Nephrocalcinosis: Molecular insights into calcium precipitation within the kidney. Clin Sci (Lond)2004;106:549–61.
13.
MoochhalaSHSayerJACarrGSimmonsNL. Renal calcium stones: Insights from the control of bone mineralization. Exp Physiol2008;93:43–9.
ParksJHCoeFLEvanAPWorcesterEM. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of calcium stone-formers with and without primary hyperparathyroidism. BJU Int2009;103:670–8.
16.
TimioFKerrySMAnsonKMEastwoodJBCappuccioFP. Calcium urolithiasis, blood pressure and salt intake. Blood Press2003;12:122–7.
17.
MorrisRCJrSchmidlinOFrassettoLASebastianA. Relationship and interaction between sodium and potassium. J Am Coll Nutr2006;25:262S–70S.
18.
RothDABreitenfieldRV. Vitamin C and oxalate stones. JAMA1977;237:768.
19.
PakCYPoindexterJRAdams-HuetBPearleMS. Predictive value of kidney stone composition in the detection of metabolic abnormalities. Am J Med2003;115:26–32.
20.
MoeOW. Kidney stones: Pathophysiology and medical management. Lancet2006;367:333–44.
21.
PakCYSakhaeeKPetersonRDPoindexterJRFrawleyWH. Biochemical profile of idiopathic uric acid nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int2001;60:757–61.
22.
HallPM. Nephrolithiasis: Treatment, causes, and prevention. Cleve Clin J Med2009;76:583–91.
23.
SilverbergSJBilezikianJP. “Incipient” primary hyperparathyroidism: A “forme fruste” of an old disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab2003;88:5348–52.
24.
GoldfarbDS. Prospects for dietary therapy of recurrent nephrolithiasis. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis2009;16:21–9.
25.
BorghiLMeschiTAmatoFBrigantiANovariniAGianniniA. Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: A 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol1996;155:839–43.
26.
TaylorENStampferMJCurhanGC. Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA2005;293:455–62.
27.
ReddySTWangCYSakhaeeKBrinkleyLPakCY. Effect of low-carbohydrate high-protein diets on acid—base balance, stone-forming propensity, and calcium metabolism. Am J Kidney Dis2002;40:265–74.
28.
AppelLJMooreTJObarzanekEVollmerWMSvetkeyLPSacksFMA clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med1997;336:1117–24.
29.
LieskeJCKumarRCollazo-ClavellML. Nephrolithiasis after bariatric surgery for obesity. Semin Nephrol2008;28:163–73.
30.
AsplinJRCoeFL. Hyperoxaluria in kidney stone formers treated with modern bariatric surgery. J Urol2007;177:565–9.
31.
CurhanGCWillettWCRimmEBStampferMJ. A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med1993;328:833–8.
32.
CurhanGCWillettWCSpeizerFESpiegelmanDStampferMJ. Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Intern Med1997;126:497–504.
33.
PearleMSRoehrbornCGPakCY. Meta-analysis of randomized trials for medical prevention of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Endourol1999;13:679–85.
34.
ParksJHCoeFL. Evidence for durable kidney stone prevention over several decades. BJU Int2009;103:1238–46.
35.
MartinsMCMeyersAMWhalleyNAMargoliusLPBuysME. Indapamide (Natrilix): The agent of choice in the treatment of recurrent renal calculi associated with idiopathic hypercalciuria. Br J Urol1996;78:176–80.
36.
PakCY. Citrate and renal calculi: An update. Miner Electrolyte Metab1994;20:371–7.
37.
KangDESurRLHaleblianGEFitzsimonsNJBorawskiKMPremingerGM. Long-term lemonade based dietary manipulation in patients with hypocitraturic nephrolithiasis. J Urol2007;177:1358–62.
38.
TaylorENCurhanGC. Oxalate intake and the risk for nephrolithiasis. J Am Soc Nephrol2007;18:2198–204.
39.
BorghiLSchianchiTMeschiTGuerraAAllegriFMaggioreUComparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med2002;346:77–84.
40.
EttingerBTangACitronJTLivermoreBWilliamsT. Randomized trial of allopurinol in the prevention of calcium oxalate calculi. N Engl J Med1986;315:1386–9.
41.
GoodyerP. The molecular basis of cystinuria. Nephron Exp Nephrol2004;98:e45–9.
42.
Dello StrologoLPrasEPontesilliCBecciaERicci-BarbiniVde SanctisLComparison between SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 cystinuria patients and carriers: A need for a new classification. J Am Soc Nephrol2002;13:2547–53.
43.
CranidisAIKarayannisAADelakasDSLivadasCEAnezinisPE. Cystine stones: The efficacy of percutaneous and shock wave lithotripsy. Urol Int1996;56:180–3.
44.
NakagawaYAsplinJRGoldfarbDSParksJHCoeFL. Clinical use of cystine supersaturation measurements. J Urol2000;164:1481–5.
45.
JaegerPPortmannLSaundersARosenbergLEThierSO. Anticystinuric effects of glutamine and of dietary sodium restriction. N Engl J Med1986;315:1120–3.
46.
GoldfarbDSCoeFLAsplinJR. Urinary cystine excretion and capacity in patients with cystinuria. Kidney Int2006;69:1041–7.
47.
CoeFLParksJHAsplinJR. The pathogenesis and treatment of kidney stones. N Engl J Med1992;327:1141–52.
48.
KnollTZollnerAWendt-NordahlGMichelMSAlkenP. Cystinuria in childhood and adolescence: Recommendations for diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. Pediatr Nephrol2005;20:19–24.
49.
PerruzzaIDi PietroVTavazziBLazzarinoGGamberiniMBarsottiPIs adenine phophorybosiltransferase deficiency a still underdiagnosed cause of urolithiasis and chronic renal failure? A report of two cases in a family with an uncommon novel mutation. NDT Plus2008;1:292–5.
