This article describes how the management and organization of the South African 2010 FIFA World Cup stadium program shaped the current legacy of an oversupply of overdesigned and underutilized stadiums. The article identifies seven key factors that explain the differences between expected benefits and the actual legacy. Identification of these factors contributes to the increasing academic interest in explaining the poor legacy outcomes of mega-events. In conclusion, we recommend that future host country governments defragment their stadium programs by establishing a World Cup Delivery Authority (WCDA), with responsibility for the leadership and coordination of the stadium program.
AghaN., FairleyS., & GibsonH. (2012). Considering legacy as a multidimensional construct: The legacy of the Olympic Games. Sport Management Review, 15(2), 125–139.
2.
AlegiP. (2007). The political economy of mega-stadiums and the underdevelopment of grassroots football in South Africa. Politikon, 34(3), 315–331.
AndranovichG., BurbankM. J., & HeyingC.H. (2001). Olympic cities: Lessons learned from mega-event politics. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(2), 113–131.
5.
AndreffW. (2012). The winner's curse: Why is the cost of sports mega-events so often underestimated? In MaennigW., & ZimbalistA. (Eds.), Handbook on the economics of mega-sporting events (pp. 37–69). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
6.
APM. (2011). Delivering benefits from investments in change: Winning hearts and minds (pp. 1–8). Princes Risborough: Association of Project Management. Retrieved from www.apm.org.uk/news/winning-hearts-and-minds
7.
ARUP. (2003). Designing the City of Manchester Stadium. The Arup Journal, January, 25–36.
8.
BaadeR.A. (1996). Professional sports as a catalyst for metropolitan economic development. Journal of Urban Affairs, 18(1), 1–17.
9.
BaadeR. A., & DyeR. (1990). The impact of stadiums and professional sports on metropolitan area development. Growth and Change, 21(2), 1–14.
10.
BaadeR. A., & MathesonV.A. (2004). The quest for the Cup: Assessing the economic impact of the World Cup. Regional Studies, 38(4), 343–354.
11.
BarclayJ. (2009). Predicting the costs and benefits of mega-sporting events: Misjudgement of Olympic proportions?Economic Affairs, 29, 62–66.
12.
BarrettL. C., & BarrettP.S. (2008, January). The management of academic workloads: Full report on findings.London, England: Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
13.
BarrettP. S., & SutrisnaM. (2009). Methodological strategies to gain insights into informality and emergence in construction project case studies. Construction Management and Economics, 27(10), 935–948.
BondP., DesaiA., & MaharajB. (2011). Afterword: World Cup profits defeat the poor. In MaharajB., DesaiA., & BondP. (Eds.), Zuma's own goal: Losing South Africa's “war on poverty” (pp. 417–432). Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc.
16.
BreeseR. (2012). Benefits realization management: Panacea or false dawn?International Journal of Project Management, 30(3), 341–351.
17.
BuijsJ., & EdelenbosJ. (2012). Connective capacity of program management: Responding to fragmented project management. Public Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 3–41.
18.
BurgelmanR.A. (1983). A process model of internal corporate venturing in the diversified major firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(2), 223–244.
CashmanR. (2003). What is Olympic legacy? In De MoragasM., KennettC., & PuigN. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games, 1984–2000, pp. 31–42. Lausanne, Switzerland: International Olympic Committee.
21.
CoatesD. (2007). Stadiums & arenas: Economic development or economic redistribution. Contemporary Economic Policy, 25(4), 565–577.
22.
CoatesD., & HumphreysB. (1999). The growth effects of sport franchises, stadia, and arenas. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 18(4), 601–624.
23.
CoatesD., & HumphreysB. (2003). Professional sports facilities, franchises and urban economic development. Public Finance and Management, 3, 335–357.
24.
CoatesD., & HumphreysB. (2008). Do economists reach a conclusion for sports franchises, stadiums, and mega-events?Econ Journal Watch, 5(3), 294–315.
25.
CollinsA., FlynnA., MundayM., & RobertsA. (2007). Assessing the environmental consequences of major sporting events: The 2003/04 FA Cup Final. Urban Studies, 44(3), 457–476.
26.
CornelissenS. (2011). More than a sporting chance? Appraising the sport for development legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Third World Quarterly, 32(3), 503–529.
27.
CornelissenS., BobU., & SwartK. (2011). Towards redefining the concept of legacy in relation to sport mega-events: Insights from the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Development Southern Africa, 28(3), 307–331.
28.
CottleE. (2011). South Africa's World Cup: A legacy for whom?Scottssville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu Natal Press.
29.
CromptonJ. (1995). Analysis of sports facilities and events: Eleven sources of misapplication. Journal of Sports Management, 9(1), 14–35.
DaviesL. (2011). Using infrastructure to deliver economic and social change: Lessons for London beyond 2012. London Economy, 26(4), 227–231.
32.
De MoragasM., MorenoA. B., & KennettC. (2003). The legacy of the symbols: communication and the Olympic Games. In De MoragasM., KennettC., & PuigN. (Eds), The Legacy of the Olympic Games, 1984–2000, (pp. 279–288). Lausanne, Switzerland: International Olympic Committee.
33.
DengY., & PoonS.W. (2011). Mega-challenges for mega-event flagships. Architectural, Engineering and Design Management, 7, 23–27.
DicksonT. J., BensonA. M., & BlackmanD.A. (2011). Developing a framework for evaluating Olympic and Paralympic legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 16(4), 285–302.
36.
EisenhardtK.M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. The Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550.
37.
ErtenS., & OzfilizS. (2006). Stadium construction and sustainability: The review of mega-event stadiums (1990–2012).1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference, Ankara, Turkey (pp. 525–541). Retrieved from http://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/06059012396.pdf
FlyvbjergB. (2007b). How optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation in early project undermine implementation. Trondheim, Norway: Concept Program, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, pp. 41–55.
45.
FlyvbjergB. (2008). Curbing optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation in planning: Reference class forecasting in practice. European Planning Studies, 16(1), 3–21.
46.
FlyvbjergB. (2009). Survival of the unfittest: Why the worst infrastructure gets built—and what we can do about it. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 25(3), 344–367.
47.
FlyvbjergB., MassimoG., & LovalloD. (2009). Delusion and deception in large infrastructure projects: Two models for explaining and preventing executive disaster. California Management Review, 51(2), 170–193.
48.
FlyvbjergB., & MolloyE. (2011). Delusion, deception and corruption in major infrastructure projects: Causes, consequences and cures. In Rose-AckermanS., & SoreideT. (Eds.), The international handbook on the economics of corruption, Vol. 2 (pp. 81–107). Cheltenham, England and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
49.
FlyvbjergB., & StewartA. (2012, June). Olympic proportions: Cost and cost overrun at the Olympics 1960–2012. (Working Paper. Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, pp. 1–23)
50.
GabrielY. (2000). Storytelling in organizations: Facts, fictions, and fantasies.Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
51.
GetzD. (2002). Event studies and event management: On becoming an academic discipline. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 9(1), 12–23.
52.
GlaserB., & StraussA. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.
GrattonC., & PreussH. (2008). Maximizing Olympic impacts by building up legacies. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 25(14), 1922–1938.
55.
HaferburgC. (2011). South Africa under FIFA's reign: The World Cup's contribution to urban development. Development South Africa, 28(3), 333–348.
56.
HallC.M. (2001). Imaging, tourism and sports event fever. In GrattonC., & HenryI. (Eds.), Sport in the city: The role of sport in economic and social regeneration.London, England: Routledge, 166–183.
57.
HopwoodA. (1976). Accounting and human behaviour, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
58.
HSRC. (2011, May 3). FIFA 2010 World Cup Legacy Audit Final Report. Prepared for Sports and Recreation South Africa, pp. 1–164. Pretoria, South Africa: Human Science Research Council.
59.
IRDEC. (2008). Protocol for elite interviews. Social Sciences and Humanities Inter-divisional Ethics Committee (IDREC).Oxford, England: University of Oxford, Central University Research Ethics Committee (CUREC).
60.
IMF. (2011). World Economic Outlook April 2011, Tensions from the Two-Speed Recovery. Unemployment, Commodities, and Capital Flows.Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. Retrieved from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/text.pdf
61.
IsabellaL.A. (1990). Evolving interpretations as change unfolds: How managers construe key organizational events. Academy of Management Journal, 33(1), 7–41.
JennerS. (2011). Realizing benefits from government ICT investment: A fool's errand?Reading, England: Academic Publishing International Ltd.
64.
JenningsW. (2009, April 8). Governing mega-events: Tools of security risk management for the London 2012 Olympic Games and FIFA 2006 World Cup in Germany. Paper for the 59th Political Studies Association Conference, Manchester, England. Retrieved from http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/research/bitstream/handle/2100/997/Jennings.pdf?sequen
65.
KleinN. (2012, April). Real wage, labour productivity, and employment trends in South Africa: A closer look (Working Paper. IMF African Department). Retrieved from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2012/wp1292.pdf
66.
KoricaM., & MolloyE. (2010). Making sense of professional identities: Stories of medical professionals and new technologies. Human Relations, 63(12), 1879–1901.
67.
LeedsM., & von AllmenP. (2005). The economics of sports (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
LiuY., ZhaoG., & WangS. (2010). Many hands, much politics, multiple risks: The case of the 2008 Beijing Olympics Stadium. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 69, S85–S98.
70.
MacintoshN., & QuattroneP. (2010). Management accounting and control systems: An organizational and sociological approach.New York, NY: Wiley.
MathesonV.A. (2008). Mega-events: The effect of the world's biggest sporting events on local, regional and national economies. In HowardD., & HumphreysB. (Eds.), The business of sports (pp. 81–100). New York, NY: Praeger Publishers.
National Treasury. (2007, March). 2010 FIFA World Cup stadium funding. Presentation to the Portfolio Committee on Finance, National Treasury. Retrieved from http://www.pmg.org.za/docs/2007/070307stadia.ppt
NollR. G., & ZimbalistA. (1997). Build the stadium—Create the jobs. In NollR. G., & ZimbalistA. (Eds.), Sports, jobs and taxes: The economic impact of sports teams and stadiums (pp. 1–40). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
82.
NuttallI. (2011, October 4). Play the Game 2011 plenary session: Chasing the white elephants: Mega-events for the public good, part 1. Video posted to http://vimeo.com/31496076
PettigrewA.M. (1997). What is processual analysis?Scandinavian Journal of Management, 13(4), 337–348.
86.
PillayU., & BassO. (2008). Mega-events as a response to poverty reduction: The 2010 FIFA World Cup and its urban development implications. Urban Forum, 19(3), 329–346.
87.
PillayU., TomlinsonR., & BassO. (Eds.). (2009). Development and dreams: The urban legacy of the 2010 Football World Cup.Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press.
88.
PorterP.K. (1999). Mega-sports events as municipal investments: A critique of impact analysis. In FizelJ., GustafsonE., & HadleyL. (Eds.), Sports economics: Current research (pp. 61–73). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishing.
89.
PreussH. (2007). The conceptualisation and measurement of mega sport event legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3-4), 207–227.
90.
RemenyiD. (2012). Case study research.Reading, England: Academic Publishing International Limited.
ThomsonA., LeopkeyB., SchlenkerK., & SchulenkorfN. (2010, July). Sport event legacies: Implications for meaningful legacy outcomes. Paper presented at the Global Events Congress IV July 14–16, UK Centre for Events Management, Leeds University, United Kingdom.
110.
TienC., LoH-C., & ZeY. (2011). The economic benefits of mega events: Myth or a reality? A longitudinal study on the Olympic Games. Journal of Sport Management, 25(1), 11–23.
111.
Van de VenA.H. (1992). Suggestions for studying strategy process: A research note. Strategic Management Journal, 13(summer special issue), 169–188.
ZimbalistA. (2000). The economics of stadiums, teams, and cities. In RichW. C. (Ed.), The economics and politics of sports facilities (pp. 57–69). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
