Project management is widely seen as delivering undertakings on time, on budget, and on scope. This conceptualization fails, however, to address the front end and its management. Addressing the front end moves the discipline to a second, more strategic level. This article proposes a third level of conceptualization: the institutional level, where management is focused on creating the conditions to support and foster projects, both in its parent organization and its external environment. Management here is done for and on the project rather than in or to it. We show that management at this level offers an enlarged research agenda and improvement in performance.
AltshulerA., & LuberoffD. (2003). Mega-projects: The changing politics of urban public investment.Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
2.
Association for Project Management (APM). (2006). APM body of knowledge (6th ed.). Buckinghamshire, UK: Author.
3.
BaumgartnerJ. S. (1963). Systems management.Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs.
4.
BergerP. L., & LuckmanT. (1967). The social construction of reality.New York: Doubleday.
5.
BesnerC., & HobbsB. (2008). Project management practice, generic or contextual: A reality check. Project Management Journal, 39(1), 16–33.
6.
BremmerI. (2010). The end of the free market: Who wins the war between states and corporations?New York: Viking.
7.
BresnenM., & MarshallN. (2011). Projects and partnerships: Institutional processes and emergent practices. In MorrisP.W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on project management (pp. 154–174). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
8.
BrooksC. G., GrimwoodJ. M., & SwensonL. S. (1979). Chariots for Apollo: A history of manned lunar spacecraft.Washington, DC: NASA.
9.
CleggS., BjørkengK., & PitsisT. (2011). Innovating the practice of normative control in project management contractual relations. In MorrisP.W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on project management (pp. 410–437). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10.
CleggS. R., PitsisT. S., Rura-PolleyT., & MarosszekyM. (2002). Governmentality matters: Designing an alliance culture of inter-organizational collaboration for managing projects. Organization Studies, 23(3), 317–337.
11.
ClelandD. I., & KingW. R. (1968). Systems analysis and project management.New York: McGraw-Hill.
12.
CookD. L. (1977). Certification of project managers—Fantasy or reality?Project Management Quarterly, 8(3), 32–34.
13.
CookS. D. N., & Seeley-BrownJ. (1999). Bridging epistemologies: The generative dance between organizational knowledge and organizational knowing. Organization Science, 10(4), 381–400.
14.
Cooke-DaviesT. (2002). The “real” success factors on projects. International Journal of Project Management, 20(3), 185–190.
15.
CoxA. (1999). Power, value and supply chain management. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 4(4), 167–175.
16.
CoxA., IrelandP., & TownsendM. (2006). Managing in construction supply chains and markets.London: Thomas Telford Publishing.
17.
DaiC.X., & WellsW. G. (2004). An exploration of project management office features and their relationship to project performance. International Journal of Project Management, 22(3), 523–532.
18.
DaviesA., & HobdayM. (2005). The business of projects: Managing innovation in complex products and systems.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
19.
DavisS. M., & LawrenceP. R. (1977). Matrix organizations.Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
20.
DeFillipiR. J., & ArthurM. B. (1998). Paradox in project-based enterprise: The case of film-making. California Management Review, 40(2), 125–139.
21.
DiMaggioP.J., & PowellW.W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160.
22.
DvirD., & ShenharA. (1998). In search of project classification: A non-universal approach to project success factors. Research Policy, 27(9), 915–935.
23.
EkstedtE. (2002). Contracts of work in a project-based economy. In Sahlin-AnderssonK., & SöderholmsA. (Eds.), Beyond project management: New perspectives on the temporary-permanent dilemma (pp. 59–80). Malmö: Liber ekonomi.
24.
EngwallM. (2003). No project is an island: Linking project history and context. Research Management, 32(5), 789–808.
25.
FeldmanE. J., & MilchJ. (1982). Technocracy versus democracy.Boston: Auburn House.
26.
FlyvbjergB., BruzeliusN., & RothengatterW. (2003). Megaprojects and risk: An anatomy of ambition.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
27.
FoulkesJ., & MorrisP.W. G. (2004). Pharmaceutical drug development project management. In MorrisP. W. G., & PintoJ. K. (Eds.), The Wiley guide to managing projects (pp. 1315–1328). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
GeraldiJ. G., & AdlbrechtG. (2007). On faith, fact, and interaction in projects. Project Management Journal, 38(1), 32–43.
30.
GiddensA. (1979). Central problems in social theory.Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
31.
Government Office for Science. (2010). Foresight land use futures: Final project report.London: Author.
32.
GrabherG. (2002). Cool projects, boring institutions: Temporary collaboration in social context. Regional Studies, 36(3), 205–214.
33.
GrabherG., & IbertO. (2011). Project ecologies: A contextual view on temporary organizations. In MorrisP.W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on project management (pp. 175–200). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
HertoghM., BakerS., Staal-OngP. L., & WesterveldE. (2008). Managing large infrastructure projects.Utrecht, the Netherlands: AT Osborne BV.
36.
HuemannM., TurnerR., & KeeganA. (2004). Managing human resources in the project-oriented company. In MorrisP.W. G., & PintoJ. K. (Eds.), The Wiley guide to managing projects (pp. 117–142). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
37.
HillG. M. (2004). Evolving the project management office: A competency continuum. Information Systems Management, 21(4), 45–51.
38.
HobbsB., & AubryM. (2008). An empirically grounded search for a typology of project management offices. Project Management Journal, 39(S1), 569–582.
39.
HobdayM. (2000). The project-based organisation: An ideal form for managing complex products and systems?Research Policy, 29(7-8), 871–893.
40.
HodgsonD. E., & CicmilS. (2006). Are projects real? The PMBOK and the legitimation of project management knowledge. In HodgsonD. E., & CicmilS. (Eds.), Making projects critical (pp. 29–50). London: Palgrave.
41.
HodgsonD. E., & CicmilS. (2007). The politics of standards in modern management: Making the project a reality. Journal of Management Studies, 44(3), 431–450.
42.
HodgsonD. E., & MuzioD. (2011). Prospects for professionalism in project management. In MorrisP.W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on project management (pp. 107–132). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
43.
HorwitchM. (1982). Clipped wings: The American SST conflict.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
44.
HughesT. P. (1998). Rescuing Prometheus.New York: Vintage.
45.
JohnsonS. B. (1997). Three approaches to big technology: Operations research, systems engineering, and project management. Technology and Culture, 38(4), 891–919.
46.
JugdevK. (2004). Through the looking glass: Examining theory development in project management with the resource-based view lens. Project Management Journal, 35(3), 15–26.
47.
JugdevK., & MüllerR. (2005). A retrospective look at our evolving understanding of project success. Project Management Journal, 36(4), 19–31.
48.
JugdevK., & ThomasJ. (2002). Project management maturity models: The silver bullets of competitive advantage. Project Management Journal, 33(4), 4–14.
49.
KadeforsA. (1995). Institutions in building projects: Implications for flexibility and change. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11(4), 395–408.
50.
KahnemanD., & LovalloD. (1993). Timid choices and bold forecasts: A cognitive perspective on risk taking. Management Science, 39(1), 17–31.
51.
LarsonE. W., & GobeliD. H. (1989). Significance of project management structure on development success. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 36(2), 119–125.
52.
LauferA., & HoffmanE. J. (2000). Project management success stories: Lessons of project leaders.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
53.
LawrenceP., & LorschJ. (1967). Organisation and environment: Managing integration and differentiation.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
54.
LittauP., JujagiriN. J., & AdlbrechtG. (2009). 25 years of stakeholder theory in project management literature (1984–2009). Project Management Journal, 41(4), 17–29.
55.
LoveP., FongP., & IraniZ. (2005). Management of knowledge in project environments.Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
56.
LundinR. A., & SöderholmA. (1995). A theory of the temporary organization. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11(4), 437–455.
57.
Malach-PinesA., DvirD., & SadehA. (2009). Project manager-project (PMP) fit and project success. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 29(3), 268–291.
58.
ManningS. (2008). Customizing clusters: On the role of Western MNCs in the formation of science and engineering clusters in emerging economies. Economic Development Quarterly, 22(4), 316–323.
59.
ManningS., RicartJ.-E., Rosatti RiqueM. S., & LewinA.Y. (2010). From blind spots to hotspots: How knowledge services clusters develop and attract foreign investment. Journal of International Management, 16(4), 369–382.
60.
MaylorH., BradyT., Cooke-DaviesT., & HodgsonD. (2006). From projectification to programmification. International Journal of Project Management, 24(8), 663–674.
61.
MeierS. R. (2008). Best project management and systems engineering practices in pre-acquisition practices in the federal intelligence and defense agencies. Project Management Journal, 39(1), 59–71.
62.
MeyerJ. W., & RowanB. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363.
63.
MillerR., & LessardD. R. (2000). The strategic management of large engineering projects.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
64.
MintzbergH. (1979). The structuring of organizations.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
65.
MorrisP. W. G. (1994). The management of projects.London: Thomas Telford.
66.
MorrisP. W. G. (2009). Implementing strategy through project management: The importance of managing the project front-end. In WilliamsT. M., SamsetK., & SunnevågK. J. (Eds.), Making essential choices with scant information: Front-end decision-making in major projects (pp. 39–67). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
67.
MorrisP. W. G. (2011). A brief history of project management. In MorrisP.W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook on project management (pp. 15–36). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
68.
MorrisP. W. G., CrawfordL., HodgsonD., ShepherdM. M., & ThomasJ. (2006). Exploring the role of formal bodies of knowledge in defining a profession—The case of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24(8), 710–721.
69.
MorrisP. W. G., & HoughG. H. (1987). The anatomy of major projects.Chichester, UK: Wiley.
70.
MorrisP. W. G., & LochI. C. A. (2004). Knowledge creation in project-based learning. In SlevinD. P., ClelandD. I., & PintoJ. K. (Eds.), Innovations: Project management research 2004 (pp. 103–122). Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
71.
MorrisP. W. G., PintoJ. K., & SöderlundJ. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford handbook on project management.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
72.
MüllerR., GeraldiJ. G., & TurnerR. (in press). Linking complexity and leadership competences of project managers. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management.
73.
MüllerR., & TurnerR. (2010). Leadership competency profiles of successful project managers. International Journal of Project Management, 28(5), 437–448.
74.
NewcombeR. (2003). From client to project stakeholders: A stakeholder mapping approach. Construction Management and Economics, 21(8), 841–848.
75.
NonakaI., & TakeuchiH. (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation.Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
76.
Office of Government Commerce. (1999). Managing successful programmes.Norwich, UK: The Stationery Office.
77.
O'LearyT., & WilliamsT. (2008). Making a difference? Evaluating an innovative approach to the project management centre of excellence in a UK government department. International Journal of Project Management, 26(5), 556–565.
78.
OrrR. L., & ScottR. W. (2008). Institutional exceptions on global projects: A process model. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(4), 562–588.
79.
PackendorffJ. (1995). Inquiring into the temporary organization: New directions for project management research. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11(4), 319–333.
80.
PannenbackerK., KnopfelH., MorrisP. W. G., & CaupinG. (1998). IPMA and its validated four-level certification programmes: Version 1.00.Zurich: International Project Management Association.
81.
ParsonsT. (1951). The social system.Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
82.
ParsonsT. (1960). Structure and process in modern societies.Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
83.
PellegrinelliS. (2002). Shaping context: The role and challenge for programmes. International Journal for Project Management, 20(3), 229–233.
84.
PenroseE. T. (1959). The theory of the growth of the firm.New York: Oxford University Press.
85.
PfefferJ., & SalancikG. R. (1978). The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective.New York: Harper and Row.
86.
PrahaladC. K., & HamelG. (1990). The core competence of the corporation, Harvard Business Review, 68(3), 79–91.
87.
Project Management Institute. (2008). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK® guide) (4th ed.). Newtown Square, PA: Author.
88.
Project Management Institute. (2010). 2010 annual report: Building and strengthening your global community.Newtown Square, PA: Author.
89.
PrykeS., & SmythH. (2006). The management of complex projects: A relationship approach.Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
90.
SapolskyH. (1972). The Polaris system development.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
91.
SchönD. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action.New York: Basic Books.
92.
ScottW. R. (1995). Institutions and organizations.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
93.
ScottW. R. (2008). Approaching adulthood: The maturing of institutional theory. Theory and Society, 37(4), 427–442.
94.
ShenharA. J., & DvirD. (2007). Reinventing project management.Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
95.
SmythH., & PrykeS. (2008). Collaborative relationships in construction.Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
96.
SöderlundJ. (2000). Temporary organizing: Characteristics and control forms. In LudinR. A., & HartmanF. (Eds.), Projects as guiding motives for business (pp. 61–74). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
97.
SöderlundJ. (2004). Building theories of project management: Past research, questions for the future. International Journal of Project Management, 22(3), 183–191.
98.
StinchcombeA. L., & HeimerC. (Eds.) (1985). Organization theory and project management.Oslo: Norwegian University Press.
99.
ThompsonJ. (1967/2003). Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory.New York: McGraw-Hill.
100.
WeickK. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
101.
WengerE. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
102.
WheelwrightS. C., & ClarkK. B. (1992). Revolutionizing product development.Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
103.
WilliamsT. M. (2008). How do organizations learn lessons from projects and do they?IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 55(2), 248–266.
104.
WilliamsT. M., SamsetK., & SunnevågK. J. (Eds.). (2009). Making essential choices with scant information: Front-end decision-making in major projects.Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
105.
WilliamsonO. E. (1975). Markets and hierarchies, analysis and antitrust implications: A study in the economics of internal organization.New York: Free Press.
106.
WinchG. M. (2010). Managing construction projects.Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
107.
World Bank. (1997). Evaluation results: 1994.Washington, DC: International Bank of Reconstruction and Development.
