In this paper, andragogy, as presented by Malcolm Knowles, is critiqued as it represents European ideologies and ways of learning that fail to recognize the multifaceted experiences of adult Black males. With increased numbers of Black males entering post–secondary education spaces, new schools of thought need to be considered that are more culturally relevant. A theory for adult Black males proves beneficial for adult learning researchers and practitioners as noted experiences include racial profiling, isolation, and racism. This paper critically examines deficit perspectives of supporting adult Black males while whiteness and systemic oppression are targeted as barriers to their success. The paper concludes with implications for practitioners who work with or conduct research on this population.
AlexanderM. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York: New Press.
2.
AlfredM. (2002). Linking the personal and the social for a more critical democratic adult education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing education, 96, 89–95.
3.
BronfenbrennerU. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
4.
BrowerR. (2015). Against all odds: From prison to graduate school. Journal of African American Males in Education, 6(1), 1–24.
5.
BushL. (1999). Am I a man?: A literature review of engaging the sociohistorical dynamics of Black manhood in the United States. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 23(1), 49–57.
6.
BushE., & BushL. (2013). God bless the child who got his own: Toward a comprehensive theory for African–American boys and men. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 37(1), 1–13.
7.
ChungB., MeldrumM., JonesF., BrownA., & JonesL. (2014). Perceived sources of stress and resilience in men in an African–American community. Prog Community Health Partnership, 8(3), 441–451.
8.
DelgadoR. & StefancicJ. (2012). Critical race theory. New York, NY: New York University Press.
9.
DentonV. L. (1993). Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. Gainsville: University Press of Florida.
10.
DraytonB. (2010). African–American males identities in adult basic education and literacy programs [theorizing from the literature]. Adult Education Research Conference, 128–132. http://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2010/papers/20.
11.
DraytonB. & PrinsE. (2011). African American men, identity, and participation in adult basic education and literacy programs. In GandyP., TieszenS., Taylor–HuntC., FlowersD.,& SheardV.GJoint Conference Proceedings of the 51st Adult Education Research Conference and the 3rd Western Region Research Conference on the Education of Adults(121–131). Sacramento: California State University.
12.
DraytonB., Rosser–MimsD., SchwartzJ., & GuyT. (2014). Black males and adult education: A call to action. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 144, 89–92.
13.
DraytonB. (2014). The clown, the criminal, and the dummy: Alternate interpretations of oppositional behaviors. Adult Education Research Conference, 144–149. Harrisburg, PA. http://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2014/papers/23.
14.
DraytonB., Rosser–MimsD., SchwartzJ., & GuyT. (2016). Swimming into the open. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 150, 97–101.
15.
DuBoisW.E.B (1969). The souls of Black folk. New York: American Library. (Originally published 1903).
16.
FanonF. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New York, NY: Grove Press, Inc.
17.
FlanneryD. D. (1995). Adult education and the politics of the theoretical text. In KanpolB., & McLarenP., Critical Multiculturalism: Uncommon Voices in a Common Struggle (pp.149–162). Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
18.
FreireP. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed, 30thAnniversary Edition. New York: Continuum.
19.
GinwrightS. (2016). Hope and healing in urban education: How activists and teachers are reclaiming matters of the heart. New York: Routlege.
20.
GuinierL. (2015) Tyranny of meritocracy: Democratizing higher education in America. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
21.
GuyT. (1999). Culturally relevant adult education: Key themes and common purposes. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 82, 93–98.
22.
GuyT. (2014). The (end)angered Black male swimming against the current. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 144, 15–26.
23.
HarperS. & DavisC. (2012). They (don't) care about education: A counternarrative on Black male students’ responses to inequitable schooling. Educational Foundations, 26(1–2), 103–120.
24.
HunnL. (2004). Africentric philosophy: A remedy for Eurocentric dominance. New Directions for Adult and continuing education, 102, 65–74.
25.
HunterA. & DavisJ. (1992). Constructing gender: An exploration of Afro–American men's conceptualization of manhood. Gender & Society, 6(3), 464–479.
26.
Johnson–BaileyJ. (2006). African Americans in adult education: The Harlem Renaissance revisited. Adult Education Quarterly, 56(2), 102–118.
27.
Johnson–BaileyJ.RayN., & Lasker–ScottT. (2014). Race, the black male, and heterogeneous racisms in education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 144, 5–14.
28.
KnowlesM. (1990). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (4th Ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
29.
LockeA. (1935). The dilemma of segregation. The Journal of Negro Education, 3(4), 406–411.
30.
ManglitzE. & HunnL. (2002). Casting a wider net: A critique of the boundaries imposed by white privilege in adult education. Adult Education Research Conference, 44. http://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2002/papers/44
31.
ManglitzE. (2003). Challenging white privilege in adult education: A critical review of the literature. Adult Education Quarterly, 53(2), 119–134.
32.
McGeeL. & NeufeldtH. (1985). Education of the Black adult in the United States: An annotated bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
33.
MerriamS. (2001). Andragogy and self–directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89, 3–13.
34.
NedhariA. (2009). In Search of manhoos: The Black Males's struggle for identity and power. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, 1(11). Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=32. .
35.
NickleberryL. & ColemanM. (2012). Exploring African American masculinities: An integrative model. Sociology Compas, 6(11), 897–907.
RobersonD. N. (2002) Andragogy in Color. ERIC Document ED 465047
38.
Rosser–MimsD., PalmerG., & HarroffP. (2014). The reentry adult college student: An exploration of the black male experience. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 144, 53–68.
39.
RowlandM. (2000). African Americans and Self–help education: The missing link in adult education. Eric Digest, 222.
40.
SandlinJ. (2005). Andragogy and its discontents: An analysis of andragogy from three critical perspectives. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 14, 25–42.
41.
ScheurichJ. & YoungM. (1997). Coloring Epistemologies: Are Our Research Epistemologies Racially Biased?Educational Researcher, 26(4), 4–16.
42.
SkibaR., MichaelR., NardoA., & PetersonR. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342.
ThomasA. & ChessS. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Bunner/Mazel.
45.
TyackD. (1974). The one best system: A history of American urban education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
46.
ValenciaR. (2010). Dismantling contemporary deficit thinking. New York: Routledge.
47.
WadeJ. & RochelenA. (2013). Introduction: Masculinity, identity, and the health and well–being of African American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 1–6.
48.
WashingtonB. T. (1901). Up from slavery. New York: Doubleday.
49.
WilsonA. & HayesE. (2000). Handbook of adult and continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.
