Many Iraqi Arabic-speaking learners of English encounter challenges in pronouncing plural endings such as /s/, /z/, and /ɪz/. This study applies Optimality Theory (OT), a linguistic framework that explains pronunciation choices through ranked phonological constraints, to analyse how Iraqi university learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) generate English plural allomorphs (/s/, /z/, /ɪz/). Fifteen Iraqi undergraduate English majors pluralized three monosyllabic nouns (dish, reef, road), each triggering a different plural allomorph. These words exemplify the range of phonological challenges Arabic-speaking learners face. Students’ outputs were evaluated against an OT constraint hierarchy (SS >> A_GREE >> M_AX >> D_EP >> I_DENT) to identify optimal (correct) versus suboptimal (incorrect) pluralizations. Results showed that only nine of 45 plural productions were optimal. Accuracy was highest for road (3/15 correct) and reef (4/15), whereas dish had the lowest accuracy (2/15). Suboptimal forms stemmed from constraint violations, such as breaching D_EP (vowel insertion (epenthesis)), violating A_GREE/I_DENT (incorrect voicing assimilation), contravening M_AX (omission of the plural suffix), and violating SS (unresolved sibilant clusters). The errors observed can be attributed to negative transfer from Arabic: Learners inserted vowels, reflecting Arabic phonology’s inclination towards consonant–vowel syllable structures (e.g. pronouncing roads as [rəʊdɪz]), and misassigned voicing because of the absence of similar voicing assimilation rules in Arabic (e.g. pronouncing reef as [riːfz]). Limited exposure to varied English inputs and insufficient corrective feedback possibly exacerbated these issues. This study illustrates the effectiveness of OT in identifying pronunciation challenges and emphasizes particular first language (L1) transfer effects impacting Arabic-speaking learners. Pedagogically, the analysis supports focused pronunciation instruction through cluster simplification drills and voicing contrast exercises. By discerning frequent constraint violations, teachers can better target phonological habits shaped by L1 interference. Thus, applying OT to pluralization yields both theoretical insight into cross-linguistic phonology and practical guidance for improving pronunciation teaching for Arabic EFL learners.

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An optimality-theoretic analysis of Iraqi EFL students’ production of English plural forms

The abstractness hypothesis and morphemic spelling